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Cited by 64Atmospheric Ozone and ClimateAtmospheric chemistry and aerosolsAtmospheric aerosols and clouds

Changes in tropospheric air quality related to the protection of stratospheric ozone in a changing climate

Open access
Madronich, S., Sulzberger, B., Longstreth, J. D., Schikowski, T., Andersen, M. P. Sulbæk, Solomon, K. R., Wilson, S. R.·2023·Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences
DOI 10.1007/s43630-023-00369-6PMC PMC10262938
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Abstract

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation drives the net production of tropospheric ozone (O 3) and a large fraction of particulate matter (PM) including sulfate, nitrate, and secondary organic aerosols. Ground-level O 3 and PM are detrimental to human health, leading to several million premature deaths per year globally, and have adverse effects on plants and the yields of crops. The Montreal Protocol has prevented large increases in UV radiation that would have had major impacts on air quality. Future scenarios in which stratospheric O 3 returns to 1980 values or even exceeds them (the so-called super-recovery) will tend to ameliorate urban ground-level O 3 slightly but worsen it in rural areas. Furthermore, recovery of stratospheric O 3 is expected to increase the amount of O 3 transported into the troposphere by meteorological processes that are sensitive to climate change. UV radiation also generates hydroxyl radicals (OH) that control the amounts of many environmentally important chemicals in the atmosphere including some greenhouse gases, e.g., methane (CH 4), and some short-lived ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). Recent modeling studies have shown that the increases in UV radiation associated with the depletion of stratospheric ozone over 1980–2020 have contributed a small increase (~ 3%) to the globally averaged concentrations of OH. Replacements for ODSs include chemicals that react with OH radicals, hence preventing the transport of these chemicals to the stratosphere. Some of these chemicals, e.g., hydrofluorocarbons that are currently being phased out, and hydrofluoroolefins now used increasingly, decompose into products whose fate in the environment warrants further investigation. One such product, trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), has no obvious pathway of degradation and might accumulate in some water bodies, but is unlikely to cause adverse effects out to 2100. Graphical abstract

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This assessment reviews how stratospheric ozone protection and climate change alter tropospheric air quality, especially UV-driven ozone, particulate matter, OH, and trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). It concludes that the Montreal Protocol has avoided large UV increases, ozone recovery may slightly improve urban O3 but worsen rural O3, and projected TFA risks remain de minimis.

Key findings

  • Recovery of stratospheric O3 to 1980 levels is estimated to increase the U.S. O3 column by 4–6% and to lower ambient O3 over a few large urban areas while raising it slightly elsewhere; under super-recovery by 2100, stratospheric O3 could increase by an additional 10% above 1980 levels under high emission scenarios, decreasing tropospheric JO3 by about 14%, with changes about three times greater than for recovery to 1980 levels.
  • UV-B drives OH; modeling studies show increases in UV from stratospheric ozone depletion over 1980–2020 contributed a small increase (~3%) to globally averaged OH, while three Earth System Models gave a net OH increase of about 8% over 1980–2010, with rising CH4 counteracting by about −8%.
  • Health: WHO estimates 4.2 million deaths/year from ambient air pollution; in ELAPSE, among 325,367 adults, each 5 µg/m3 increase in PM2.5 was associated with a 13% (95% CI 10.6–15.5%) increase in natural deaths, and below the U.S. 12 µg/m3 standard with nearly 30% (29.6%, 95% CI 14–47.4%) increase.
  • TFA: projected deposition from HFC-134a and HFO-1234yf is 31.5–51.9 Tg for 2020–2100, raising ocean TFA sodium salt to 266–284 ng/L by 2100; margins of exposure are thousand-fold versus toxicity thresholds, and TFA is judged de minimis risk. U.S. pesticide use 1992–2018 was estimated to potentially release 122,604 tons TFA under worst-case assumptions.

Methods

  • Design: quadrennial assessment/review in two parts: (1) effects of stratospheric O3 depletion, UV-B, and climate change on tropospheric air quality and health/ecosystems; (2) sources, fate, and risks of TFA.
  • Data: literature searched through PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and relevant journals for peer-reviewed papers from 2018–2022, plus reports from international agencies (e.g., WHO) and government agencies (e.g., US EPA); papers/reports critically evaluated before inclusion.
  • Analysis: synthesis of observations and numerical model results; includes new calculations/estimates, e.g., worst-case TFA tonnage from U.S. pesticide use using USGS data and molar yields.

Limitations

  • Stated: major uncertainties remain for future emissions scenarios and environmental conditions (UV-B, temperature, humidity); models need improvement for urban VOC-NOx O3 chemistry, SOA formation, and stratospheric–tropospheric O3 exchange; global OH concentrations and variability need better constraints.
  • Stated: TFA source identification/quantification, especially natural sources and short-lived precursor inventories, is uncertain; TFA toxicity data are limited because only two marine species are included and marine macrophytes have not been tested.
  • Evident: as a review/assessment, conclusions depend on cited studies and model outputs rather than new primary measurements; many reported quantities have wide ranges or model disagreement (e.g., stratospheric–tropospheric exchange estimates vary from 347 ± 12 to 628 ± 800 Tg/year).

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s43630-023-00369-6

Cites

259 of 259 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 376 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    By 2100, stratospheric ozone could increase by an additional 10% above 1980 levels under high emission scenarios SSP3-7.0, SSP4-6.0 and SSP5-8.5.

    “By 2100, stratospheric O3 could increase by an additional 10% (above the 1980 levels) under high emission scenarios (SSP3-7.0, SSP4-6.0 and SSP5-8.5; see Fig. 3 of Bernhard et al. [23]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Bernhard, G. H., Bais, A. F., Aucamp, P. J., Klekociuk, A. R., Liley, J. B., & McKenzie, R. L. (2023). Stratospheric ozone, UV radiation, and climate interactions. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43630-023-00371-y source

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  • Findingcitation

    Decreases in UV radiation at the surface expected from the recovery of stratospheric ozone to 1980 levels are estimated to have only a small impact on ambient ozone.

    “The decreases in UV radiation at the surface, expected from the recovery of stratospheric O3, to 1980 levels are estimated to have only a small impact on ambient O3, as reported previously [14, 15], since reductions of O3 at mid-latitudes have been limited to only a few percent (relative to a 1980 baseline).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [14] Zhang, H., Wu, S., Huang, Y., & Wang, Y. (2014). Effects of stratospheric ozone recovery on photochemistry and ozone air quality in the troposphere. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14(8), 4079–4086. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-4079-2014 source

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    • cites [15] Hodzic, A., & Madronich, S. (2018). Response of surface ozone over the continental United States to UV radiation declines from the expected recovery of stratospheric ozone. npj Climate and Atmospheric Science, 1(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-018-0045-5 source

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  • Findingcitation

    Contributions from stratospheric ozone depletion from 1980 to current and the associated increases in UV-B radiation to tropospheric ozone have been negligible by comparison, at least for the global scale.

    “Contributions from stratospheric ozone depletion (1980 to current) and the associated increases in UV-B radiation have been negligible by comparison, at least for the global scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Szopa, S., Naik, V., Adhikary, B., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Collins, W. D., Fuzzi, S., Gallardo, L., Scharr, A. K., Klimont, Z., Liao, H., Unger, N., & Zanis, P. (2021). Short-lived climate forcers. In V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, & B. Zhou (Eds.), Climate Change 2021: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chan

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  • Findingcitation

    The UV Index in Mexico City increased by about 20% over 2000-2019 due to reductions in particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide.

    “More recently, Ipiña et al. [42] found that the UV Index in Mexico City increased by ca. 20% over 2000–2019 (due to reductions in PM, SO2, O3, and NO2) and estimated that such increases in UV radiation would require an additional 10% reduction in VOC emissions to meet the same ground-level O3 concentrations had the UV remained constant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Ipiña, A., López-Padilla, G., Retama, A., Piacentini, R. D., & Madronich, S. (2021). Ultraviolet radiation environment of a tropical megacity in transition: Mexico City 2000–2019. Environmental Science & Technology. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c08515 source

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  • Findingcitation

    UV-B irradiation of dissolved organic matter from freshwaters resulted in an increase of hygroscopicity by up to 2.5 times.

    “UV-B irradiation (~ 4.5 days solar radiation equivalent) of dissolved organic matter (DOM, used as a surrogate for organic aerosols) from freshwaters resulted in an increase of hygroscopicity by up to 2.5 times [73].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] Borduas-Dedekind, N., Ossola, R., David, R. O., Boynton, L. S., Weichlinger, V., Kanji, Z. A., & McNeill, K. (2019). Photomineralization mechanism changes the ability of dissolved organic matter to activate cloud droplets and to nucleate ice crystals. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19(19), 12397–12412. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-12397-2019 source

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    Findingcitation

    Over the past few decades, concentrations of ozone at ground level and in the lower atmosphere have generally decreased in most developed countries, while increasing greatly in some locations including East and South Asia, in response to changes in emissions of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds.

    “Over the past few decades, concentrations of O3 at ground-level and in the lower atmosphere have been generally decreasing in most developed countries, while increasing greatly in some locations including East and South Asia, in response to changes in emissions of NOx and VOCs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Szopa, S., Naik, V., Adhikary, B., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Collins, W. D., Fuzzi, S., Gallardo, L., Scharr, A. K., Klimont, Z., Liao, H., Unger, N., & Zanis, P. (2021). Short-lived climate forcers. In V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, & B. Zhou (Eds.), Climate Change 2021: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chan

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    Findingcitation

    Increasing trends in UV radiation over 1996-2016 were found for stations in Japan and Greece and were attributed to reductions in absorbing aerosols.

    “For example, increasing trends in UV radiation over 1996–2016 were found [41] for stations in Japan and Greece, and were attributed to reductions in absorbing aerosols.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] Fountoulakis, I., Zerefos, C. S., Bais, A. F., Kapsomenakis, J., Koukouli, M.-E., Ohkawara, N., Fioletov, V., De Backer, H., Lakkala, K., Karppinen, T., & Webb, A. R. (2018). Twenty-five years of spectral UV-B measurements over Canada, Europe and Japan: Trends and effects from changes in ozone, aerosols, clouds, and surface reflectivity. Comptes Rendus de l’Academie d’Geoscience de France, 350(7), 393–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2018.07.011 source

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    Findingcitation

    Reductions in aerosol haze in China led to surface brightening by 0.70-1.16 W m−2 year−1 in eastern China over 2014-2019 and to undesirable increases in ambient ozone by 2-6 μg m−3 year−1 in megacity clusters of Beijing and Shanghai over 2013-2017.

    “This has led to surface brightening (e.g., by 0.70–1.16 W m−2 year−1 in eastern China over 2014–2019) [29] but also to undesirable increases in ambient O3 [30–33] (e.g., by 2–6 µg m−3 year−1 in megacity clusters of Beijing and Shanghai over 2013–2017) [34].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [29] Shi, H., Zhang, J., Zhao, B., Xia, X., Hu, B., Chen, H., Wei, J., Liu, M., Bian, Y., Fu, D., Gu, Y., & Liou, K.-N. (2021). Surface brightening in Eastern and Central China since the implementation of the Clean Air Action in 2013: Causes and implications. Geophysical Research Letters, 48(3), e2020GL091105. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL091105 source

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    • cites [30] Ma, M., Gao, Y., Wang, Y., Zhang, S., Leung, L. R., Liu, C., Wang, S., Zhao, B., Chang, X., Su, H., Zhang, T., Sheng, L., Yao, X., & Gao, H. (2019). Substantial ozone enhancement over the North China Plain from increased biogenic emissions due to heat waves and land cover in summer 2017. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19(19), 12195–12207. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-12195-2019 source

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    • cites [31] Wang, W., Li, X., Shao, M., Hu, M., Zeng, L., Wu, Y., & Tan, T. (2019). The impact of aerosols on photolysis frequencies and ozone production in Beijing during the 4-year period 2012–2015. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19(14), 9413–9429. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-9413-2019 source

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    • cites [32] Wang, Y., Gao, W., Wang, S., Song, T., Gong, Z., Ji, D., Wang, L., Liu, Z., Tang, G., Huo, Y., Tian, S., Li, J., Li, M., Yang, Y., Chu, B., Petaja, T., Kerminen, V. M., He, H., Hao, J., Kulmala, M., et al. (2020). Contrasting trends of PM2.5 and surface-ozone concentrations in China from 2013 to 2017. National Science Review, 7, 1331–1339. https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaa032 source

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    • cites [33] Wu, J., Bei, N., Hu, B., Liu, S., Wang, Y., Shen, Z., Li, X., Liu, L., Wang, R., Liu, Z., Cao, J., Tie, X., Molina, L. T., & Li, G. (2020). Aerosol-photolysis interaction reduces particulate matter during wintertime haze events. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(18), 9755–9761. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1916775117 source

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    • cites [34] Li, K., Jacob, D. J., Liao, H., Shen, L., Zhang, Q., & Bates, K. H. (2019). Anthropogenic drivers of 2013–2017 trends in summer surface ozone in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(2), 422–427. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1812168116 source

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    Findingcitation

    For the contiguous United States, modeling studies indicate that more than half of PM2.5 is secondary in origin and thus directly sensitive to variations in UV radiation.

    “For the contiguous United States (Fig. 4) modeling studies indicate that more than half of the PM2.5 is secondary in origin, and thus directly sensitive to variations in UV radiation [46].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [46] Pye, H. O. T., Ward-Caviness, C. K., Murphy, B. N., Appel, K. W., & Seltzer, K. M. (2021). Secondary organic aerosol association with cardiorespiratory disease mortality in the United States. Nature Communications, 12(1), 7215. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27484-1 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    An umbrella review evaluated 548 meta-analyses derived from 75 systematic reviews on non-region-specific associations between outdoor air pollution and human health.

    “An umbrella review (a review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses) [79] evaluated 548 meta-analyses derived from 75 systematic reviews on non-region-specific associations between outdoor air pollution and human health.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [79] Markozannes, G., Pantavou, K., Rizos, E. C., Sindosi, O., Tagkas, C., Seyfried, M., Saldanha, I. J., Hatzianastassiou, N., Nikolopoulos, G. K., & Ntzani, E. (2022). Outdoor air quality and human health: An overview of reviews of observational studies. Environmental Pollution, 306, 119309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119309 source

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    Findingcitation

    Of the 548 meta-analyses, 57% (313) were not statistically significant.

    “Of these meta-analyses, 57% (313) were not statistically significant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [79] Markozannes, G., Pantavou, K., Rizos, E. C., Sindosi, O., Tagkas, C., Seyfried, M., Saldanha, I. J., Hatzianastassiou, N., Nikolopoulos, G. K., & Ntzani, E. (2022). Outdoor air quality and human health: An overview of reviews of observational studies. Environmental Pollution, 306, 119309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119309 source

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    Findingcitation

    The WHO estimate of 4.2 million deaths per year is somewhat higher than the values reviewed in the previous assessment, which ranged from 1.75 to 4.3 million depending on year and source of estimates.

    “These values are somewhat higher than the values reviewed in our previous assessment, which ranged from 1.75 to 4.3 million depending on year and source of estimates [6].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Wilson, S. R., Madronich, S., Longstreth, J. D., & Solomon, K. R. (2019). Interactive effects of changing stratospheric ozone and climate on tropospheric composition and air quality, and the consequences for human and ecosystem health. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 18, 775–803. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8pp90064g source

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    Findingcitation

    They found a hazard ratio of 1.22 (95% CI 1.04-1.43) per 5 μg m−3 increase in PM2.5, 1.17 (95% CI 1.10-1.25) per 10 μg m−3 for NO2, and 1.15 (95% CI 1.08-1.23) per 0.5 × 10-5 m−1 for black carbon.

    “They found a hazard ratio of 1.22 (95% CI 1.04–1.43) per 5 µg m−3 increase in PM2.5, 1.17 (95% CI 1.10–1.25) per 10 µg m−3 for NO2 and 1.15 (95% CI 1.08–1.23) per 0.5 × 10–5 m−1 for BC.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [95] Liu, S., Jørgensen, J. T., Ljungman, P., Pershagen, G., Bellander, T., Leander, K., Magnusson, P. K. E., Rizzuto, D., Hvidtfeldt, U. A., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Wolf, K., Hoffmann, B., Brunekreef, B., Strak, M., Chen, J., Mehta, A., Atkinson, R. W., Bauwelinck, M., Varraso, R., Boutron-Ruault, M. C., et al. (2021). Long-term exposure to low-level air pollution and incidence of asthma: The ELAPSE project. European Respiratory Journal. https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.03099-2020 source

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    Findingcitation

    The combined Hazard Ratios for natural-cause mortality were 1.08 (95% CI 1.06, 1.09) per 10 μg m−3 increase in PM2.5, and 1.04 (95% CI 1.03, 1.06) per 10 μg m−3 increase in PM10.

    “The combined Hazard Ratios (HRs) for natural-cause mortality were 1.08 (95% CI 1.06, 1.09) per 10 µg m−3 increase in PM2.5, and 1.04 (95% CI 1.03, 1.06) per 10 µg m−3 increase in PM10.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [96] Chen, J., & Hoek, G. (2020). Long-term exposure to PM and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environment International, 143, 105974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105974 source

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    Findingcitation

    Recent studies of large cohorts in Canada, Europe, and the United States have consistently shown that the adverse effects of air pollution are not limited to high exposures; harmful health effects can be observed at very low concentrations, with no observable thresholds below which exposure can be considered safe.

    “These studies have consistently shown that the adverse effects of air pollution are not limited to high exposures; harmful health effects can be observed at very low concentrations (see below), with no observable thresholds below which exposure can be considered safe.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [80] Brauer, M., Brook, J. R., Christidis, T., Chu, Y., Crouse, D. L., Erickson, A., Hystad, P., Li, C., Martin, R. V., Meng, J., Pappin, A. J., Pinault, L. L., Tjepkema, M., van Donkelaar, A., Weichenthal, S., & Burnett, R. T. (2019). Mortality-air pollution associations in low-exposure environments (MAPLE): Phase 1. Research Reports: Health Effects Institute, 203, 1–87

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    • cites [81] Brunekreef, B., Strak, M., Chen, J., Andersen, Z. J., Atkinson, R., Bauwelinck, M., Bellander, T., Boutron-Ruault, M. C., Brandt, J., Carey, I., Cesaroni, G., Forastiere, F., Fecht, D., Gulliver, J., Hertel, O., Hoffmann, B., de Hoogh, K., Houthuijs, D., Hvidtfeldt, U. A., & Janssen, N. A. H., et al. (2021). Mortality and morbidity effects of long-term exposure to low-level PM2.5, BC, NO2, and O3: An analysis of European cohorts in the ELAPSE project (Vol. WA 754 R432 No. 208, HEI Report Series): Health Effects Institute

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    • cites [82] Dominici, F., Schwartz, J., Di, Q., Braun, D., Choirat, C., & Zanobetti, A. (Eds.). (2022). Assessing adverse health effects of long-term exposure to low levels of ambient air pollution: Phase 1 (2020/01/08 ed., Vol. 211, HEI Research Reports). Berlin: Health Effects Institute

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    Findingcitation

    Almost all participants had annual average exposures below the European Union guidance values for PM2.5 and NO2, and about 14% had mean annual exposures below the United States National Ambient Air Quality Standards for PM2.5 of 12 μg m−3.

    “Almost all participants had annual average exposures below the European Union guidance values (Table 1) for PM2.5 and NO2, and about 14% had mean annual exposures below the United States National Ambient Air Quality Standards for PM2.5 (12 µg m−3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Brunekreef, B., Strak, M., Chen, J., Andersen, Z. J., Atkinson, R., Bauwelinck, M., Bellander, T., Boutron-Ruault, M. C., Brandt, J., Carey, I., Cesaroni, G., Forastiere, F., Fecht, D., Gulliver, J., Hertel, O., Hoffmann, B., de Hoogh, K., Houthuijs, D., Hvidtfeldt, U. A., & Janssen, N. A. H., et al. (2021). Mortality and morbidity effects of long-term exposure to low-level PM2.5, BC, NO2, and O3: An analysis of European cohorts in the ELAPSE project (Vol. WA 754 R432 No. 208, HEI Report Series): Health Effects Institute

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    Findingcitation

    The study followed 325,367 adults and found significant positive associations between even low exposure to PM2.5, black carbon, and NO2 and mortality from natural causes as well as cause-specific mortality such as cardiovascular and ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, respiratory disease, COPD, diabetes, cardiometabolic disease, and lung cancer mortality.

    “The study followed 325,367 adults and found significant positive associations between even low exposure to PM2.5, BC, and NO2 and mortality from natural-causes as well as cause-specific mortality such as cardiovascular and ischemic heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, respiratory disease, COPD, diabetes, cardiometabolic disease, and lung cancer mortality [91].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [91] Strak, M., Weinmayr, G., Rodopoulou, S., Chen, J., de Hoogh, K., Andersen, Z. J., Atkinson, R., Bauwelinck, M., Bekkevold, T., Bellander, T., Boutron-Ruault, M. C., Brandt, J., Cesaroni, G., Concin, H., Fecht, D., Forastiere, F., Gulliver, J., Hertel, O., Hoffmann, B., Hvidtfeldt, U. A., et al. (2021). Long term exposure to low level air pollution and mortality in eight European cohorts within the ELAPSE project: Pooled analysis. British Medical Journal, 374, n1904. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n1904 source

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    Findingreasoning

    In the case of HFO-1234yf, no significant competition exists in the degradation pathway, and the expected yield of TFA is ~100% through the hydrolysis of CF3CFO.

    “In the case of HFO-1234yf, no significant competition exists in the degradation pathway, and the expected yield of TFA is ~ 100% through the hydrolysis of CF3CFO.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    In Germany, the worst-case annual formation of TFA from refrigerant R134a was estimated at 1050 tons year−1, 1170 tons year−1 from refrigerant R1234yf, and 141 tons year−1 from all other refrigerants.

    “The worst-case annual formation of TFA from refrigerant R134a was estimated at 1050 tons year−1, 1170 tons year−1 from refrigerant R1234yf, and 141 tons year−1 from all other refrigerants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [214] UBA. (2021). Persistent degradation products of halogenated refrigerants and blowing agents in the environment: Type, environmental concentrations, and fate with particular regard to new halogenated substitutes with low global warming potential (Vol. FB000452/ENG). Umwelt Bundesamt

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    Findingnone given

    Given current global CH4 emission of ~500 Tg year−1, a 1% decrease of the global OH concentration would result in an increase of ~1% in tropospheric CH4 concentrations, equivalent to a sustained increase in emissions of CH4 of ~5 Tg year−1.

    “Given current global CH4 emission of ~ 500 Tg year−1, a 1% decrease of the global OH concentration would result in an increase of ~ 1% in tropospheric CH4 concentrations, equivalent to a sustained increase in emissions of CH4 of ~ 5 Tg year−1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The degradation half-life of TFA in the environment is very long (approximately centuries).

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    Findingcitation

    The likelihood of wildfires is increasing globally, a trend that is expected to continue.

    “The likelihood of wildfires is increasing globally, a trend that is expected to continue [176].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [176] Jia, G., Shevliakova, E., Artaxo, P., Noblet-Ducoudré, N. D., Houghton, R., House, J., Kitajima, K., Lennard, C., Popp, A., Sirin, A., Sukumar, R., & Verchot, L. (2019). Land–climate interactions. In: P. R. Shukla, J. Skea, E. C. Buendia, V. Masson-Delmotte, H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, P. Zhai, R. Slade, S. Connors, R. v. Diemen, M. Ferrat, E. Haughey, S. Luz, S. Neogi, M. Pathak, J. Petzold, J. P. Pereira, P. Vyas, E. Huntley, et al. (Eds.), Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and g

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Consequences of Arctic ozone depletion include colder than normal surface temperatures in southeastern Europe and southern Asia, but warmer than normal surface temperatures in Western Europe, Russia, and northern Asia.

    “Consequences are colder than normal surface temperatures in southeastern Europe and southern Asia, but warmer than normal surface temperatures in Western Europe, Russia, and northern Asia [178].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [178] Friedel, M., Chiodo, G., Stenke, A., Domeisen, D. I. V., Fueglistaler, S., Anet, J. G., & Peter, T. (2022). Springtime arctic ozone depletion forces northern hemisphere climate anomalies. Nature Geoscience, 15(7), 541–547. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-022-00974-7 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The severe fire season in Australia 2019-2020 led to significant degradation of air quality within Australia and a smoke plume that was traced around the globe.

    “The severe fire season in Australia 2019–2020 led to significant degradation of air quality within Australia and a smoke plume that was traced around the globe [173–175].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [173] Santee, M. L., Lambert, A., Manney, G. L., Livesey, N. J., Froidevaux, L., Neu, J. L., Schwartz, M. J., Millán, L. F., Werner, F., Read, W. G., Park, M., Fuller, R. A., & Ward, B. M. (2022). Prolonged and pervasive perturbations in the composition of the southern hemisphere midlatitude lower stratosphere from the Australian New Year’s fires. Geophysical Research Letters, 49(4), e2021GL096270. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL096270 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [174] Tencé, F., Jumelet, J., Bekki, S., Khaykin, S., Sarkissian, A., & Keckhut, P. (2022). Australian black summer smoke observed by lidar at the French Antarctic station Dumont d’Urville. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 127(4), e2021JD035349. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JD035349 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [175] NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. (2021). Global Transport of Australian Bushfire Smoke. https://climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/202/global-transport-of-australian-bushfire-smoke/. Accessed 16 Mar 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Well- and tap-water had TFA concentrations of about 250 ng a.e. L−1.

    “Well- and tap-water had concentrations of about 250 ng a.e. L−1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [234] Xie, G., Zhai, Z., & Zhang, J. (2020). Distribution characteristics of trifluoroacetic acid in the environments surrounding fluorochemical production plants in Jinan, China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 983–991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06689-4 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The amounts generated from the oxidation of HFOs represent only a small (<0.5%) contribution to the formation of acid rain in comparison to other sources such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides, and this is judged not to be of concern.

    “However, the amounts generated from the oxidation of HFOs represent only a small (< 0.5%) contribution to the formation of acid rain in comparison to other sources such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides [223] and this is judged to not be of concern.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [223] Lindley, A., McCulloch, A., & Vink, T. (2019). Contribution of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrofluoro-olefins (HFOs) atmospheric breakdown products to acidification (“Acid Rain”) in the EU at present and in the future. Open Journal of Air Pollution, 8, 81–95. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojap.2019.84004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    In the same study, concentrations of TFA in soil samples close to factories ranged from 59 to 2081 ng a.e. kg−1.

    “In the same study, concentrations of TFA in soil samples close to factories ranged from 59 to 2081 ng a.e. kg−1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [234] Xie, G., Zhai, Z., & Zhang, J. (2020). Distribution characteristics of trifluoroacetic acid in the environments surrounding fluorochemical production plants in Jinan, China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 983–991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06689-4 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    TFA was detected in samples of surface water and soils near a fluorochemical complex in Jinan (China).

    “TFA was detected in samples of surface water and soils near a fluorochemical complex in Jinan (China) [234].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [234] Xie, G., Zhai, Z., & Zhang, J. (2020). Distribution characteristics of trifluoroacetic acid in the environments surrounding fluorochemical production plants in Jinan, China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 983–991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06689-4 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Uptake of TFA from nutrient solution by roots and leaves of wheat plants resulted in accumulated concentrations of 170,000,000 ng kg−1 in roots and 100,000,000 ng kg−1 in shoots after exposure for 80 h.

    “Uptake of TFA from nutrient solution (containing 2,000,000,000 ng a.e. L−1) by roots and leaves of wheat plants resulted in accumulated concentrations 170,000,000 ng kg−1 in roots and 100,000,000 ng kg−1 in shoots after exposure for 80 h [235].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [235] Zhang, L., Sun, H., Wang, Q., Chen, H., Yao, Y., Zhao, Z., & Alder, A. C. (2019). Uptake mechanisms of perfluoroalkyl acids with different carbon chain lengths (C2–C8) by wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Science of the Total Environment, 654, 19–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.443 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Concentration of TFA in lotic surface waters ranged from 300 to 1000 ng L−1 but two lentic sites had mean concentrations of 1700 and 2600 ng a.e. L−1.

    “Concentration of TFA in lotic (flowing) surface waters ranged from 300 to 1000 ng L−1 but two lentic (still water sites) had mean concentrations of 1700 and 2600 ng a.e. L−1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [234] Xie, G., Zhai, Z., & Zhang, J. (2020). Distribution characteristics of trifluoroacetic acid in the environments surrounding fluorochemical production plants in Jinan, China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 983–991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06689-4 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Greatest amounts of TFA (60,000 and 50,000 ng a.e. L−1) were measured in leachates from two incineration plants, although leachates from one landfill and one transfer-site had similarly high concentrations approaching 40,000 ng a.e. L−1.

    “Greatest amounts of TFA (60,000 and 50,000 ng a.e. L−1) were measured in leachates from two incineration plants, although leachates from one landfill and one transfer-site had similarly high concentrations approaching 40,000 ng a.e. L−1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [233] Wang, B., Yao, Y., Chen, H., Chang, S., Tian, Y., & Sun, H. (2020). Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances and the contribution of unknown precursors and short-chain (C2–C3) perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids at solid waste disposal facilities. Science of the Total Environment, 705, 135832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135832 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In China rainwater, TFA concentrations ranged from 9.1 to 320 ng TFA a.e. L−1 and fluxes from 160 to 16,000 ng TFA a.e. m−2 day−1.

    “Concentrations ranged from a low of 9.1 to a high of 320 ng TFA a.e. L−1 and fluxes from 160 to 16,000 ng TFA a.e. m−2 day−1 (Tables SI-7 and SI-8 in [219]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [219] Chen, H., Zhang, L., Li, M., Yao, Y., Zhao, Z., Munoz, G., & Sun, H. (2019). Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in precipitation from mainland China: Contributions of unknown precursors and short-chain (C2C3) perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids. Water Research, 153, 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.01.019 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    TFA was formed in amounts of 19-39 mol% for PFCAs with 5-9 carbon chains.

    “TFA was formed in amounts of 19–39 mol% for PFCAs with 5–9 carbon chains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [240] Trang, B., Li, Y., Xue, X.-S., Ateia, M., Houk, K. N., & Dichtel, W. R. (2022). Low-temperature mineralization of perfluorocarboxylic acids. Science, 377(6608), 839–845. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm8868 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    A similar study in Beijing indicated yields of TFA from thermolysis of PTFE, PVDF-HFP, and PVDF-CTFE were 1.2%, 0.9% and 0.3%, respectively, estimated to contribute 0.6-6.1 ng a.e. L−1 to precipitation over this city.

    “A similar study on this source of TFA in Beijing (China) indicated yields of TFA from thermolysis of PTFE, poly(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP), and poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-chlorotrifluoroethylene) (PVDF-CTFE) were 1.2%, 0.9% and 0.3%, respectively, which was estimated to contribute 0.6–6.1 ng a.e. L−1 to precipitation over this city [239].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [239] Cui, J. N., Guo, J. Y., Zhai, Z. H., & Zhang, J. B. (2019). The contribution of fluoropolymer thermolysis to trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in environmental media. Chemosphere, 222, 637–644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.01.174 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    When maize leaves were fed to locusts, leaf-to-locust transfer factors were <1 (0.028-0.185), indicative of negative trophic magnification (trophic dilution), most likely because locusts can excrete TFA.

    “When these authors fed maize leaves to herbivores (locusts) the leaf-to-locust transfer factors were < 1 (0.028–0.185), indicative of negative trophic magnification (trophic dilution), most likely because locusts can excrete TFA, as has been demonstrated in mammals [201].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [201] Boutonnet, J. C., Bingham, P., Calamari, D., Rooij, Cd., Franklin, J., Kawano, T., Libre, J.-M., McCul-Loch, A., Malinverno, G., & Odom, J. M. (1999). Environmental risk assessment of trifluoroacetic acid. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 5, 59–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039991289644 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The potential total tonnage of TFA released from fluorinated pesticides used in the USA from 1992 to 2018 is estimated to be 122,604 tons.

    “Total | | | | | 122,604”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The actual yield of TFA from pesticides is dependent on other substituents on the molecule and the primary driver(s) of degradation, so the calculated yields based on molecular weight ratios are conservative.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    There is some uncertainty in toxicity values because of the limited number of marine species tested.

    “There is some uncertainty in toxicity values because of the limited number of marine species tested.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    At present, there are large uncertainties associated with the concentrations of TFA in various environmental compartments in some regions.

    “At present, there are large uncertainties associated with the concentrations of TFA in various environmental compartments in some regions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    UV-B radiation is responsible for the formation of the hydroxyl radical, the major oxidizing agent in the troposphere.

    “UV-B radiation is responsible for the formation of the OH radical, the major oxidizing agent in the troposphere.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Montreal Protocol has maintained the troposphere's self-cleaning capacity at near natural levels.

    “The Montreal Protocol has maintained the troposphere’s self-cleaning capacity at near natural levels, but future changes remain a concern, especially if the intensity of UV-B radiation decreases substantially due to increasing stratospheric ozone under some future scenarios.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Trifluoroacetic acid has no obvious pathway of degradation and might accumulate in some water bodies, but is unlikely to cause adverse effects out to 2100.

    “One such product, trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), has no obvious pathway of degradation and might accumulate in some water bodies, but is unlikely to cause adverse effects out to 2100.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Replacements for ozone-depleting substances include chemicals that react with hydroxyl radicals, hence preventing the transport of these chemicals to the stratosphere.

    “Replacements for ODSs include chemicals that react with OH radicals, hence preventing the transport of these chemicals to the stratosphere.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ambient ozone was generated by UV-induced reactions involving nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds.

    “when it was shown that ambient O3 was generated by UV-induced reactions involving nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Haagen-Smit, A. J., Bradley, C. E., & Fox, M. M. (1953). Ozone formation in photochemical oxidation of organic substances. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, 45(9), 2086–2089. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie50525a044 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reductions in UV radiation decrease chemical reactivity, causing slower production of ozone and other photochemical pollutants near source regions, while slowing their destruction on regional and global scales.

    “Conversely, reductions in UV radiation decrease chemical reactivity, causing slower production of O3 and other photochemical pollutants near source regions, e.g., urban areas, while slowing the destruction on regional and global scales.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Future scenarios in which stratospheric ozone returns to 1980 values or exceeds them will tend to ameliorate urban ground-level ozone slightly but worsen it in rural areas.

    “Future scenarios in which stratospheric O3 returns to 1980 values or even exceeds them (the so-called super-recovery) will tend to ameliorate urban ground-level O3 slightly but worsen it in rural areas.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ground-level ozone and particulate matter are detrimental to human health, leading to several million premature deaths per year globally, and have adverse effects on plants and crop yields.

    “Ground-level O3 and PM are detrimental to human health, leading to several million premature deaths per year globally, and have adverse effects on plants and the yields of crops.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [77] WHO. (2022). Air Pollution. https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_1. Accessed Apr 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For the United States, recovery to 1980 levels will increase the ozone column by 4-6%, and the resulting lower levels of UV radiation will tend to lower ambient ozone over a few large urban areas while raising it slightly elsewhere.

    “For the United States, the recovery to 1980 levels will increase the O3 column by 4–6%, and the resulting lower levels of UV radiation will tend to lower ambient O3 over a few large urban areas, while raising it slightly elsewhere, consistent with an overall slower chemical reactivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    Hydroxyl radicals react with many chemicals emitted to the troposphere, including methane, facilitating their removal and essentially determining their atmospheric lifetime.

    “These radicals react with many chemicals emitted to the troposphere, including greenhouse gases such as methane, facilitating their removal from the atmosphere and essentially determining their atmospheric lifetime.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Atmospheric photo-degradation of replacement chemicals can lead to persistent secondary pollutants such as trifluoroacetic acid, whose ultimate fate in the environment remains unclear.

    “However, their atmospheric photo-degradation can lead to persistent secondary pollutants such as trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), whose ultimate fate in the environment remains unclear, requiring continued monitoring and assessment relative to other natural and/or anthropogenic sources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    UV-generated hydroxyl radicals play a central role in controlling overall reactivity, and the formation of ozone, peroxides, acids, and other harmful gaseous intermediates includes some that can condense to form particulate matter.

    “such as the central role of UV-generated OH radicals in controlling the overall reactivity; and the formation of O3, peroxides, acids, and other harmful gaseous intermediates, including some that can condense to form particulate matter (PM).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Future projections tend to show an increasing global burden of tropospheric ozone, although the details depend on the assumed scenario of greenhouse gas emissions.

    “Future projections tend to show an increasing global burden of tropospheric O3, although the details depend on the assumed scenario of greenhouse gas emissions (only one shown in the figure, SSP370).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Szopa, S., Naik, V., Adhikary, B., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Collins, W. D., Fuzzi, S., Gallardo, L., Scharr, A. K., Klimont, Z., Liao, H., Unger, N., & Zanis, P. (2021). Short-lived climate forcers. In V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, & B. Zhou (Eds.), Climate Change 2021: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chan

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Hydroxyl radicals are lost by reaction with reduced chemicals including carbon monoxide, methane, volatile organic compounds, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide.

    “Hydroxyl radicals are lost by reaction with reduced chemicals, including carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), VOCs, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Hydroxyl radicals are formed through the photolysis of ozone and subsequent reaction of an electronically excited oxygen atom with water.

    “This occurs through the photolysis of O3 and subsequent reaction of an electronically excited oxygen atom with water (H2O).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    UV radiation drives the net production of tropospheric ozone and a large fraction of particulate matter including sulfate, nitrate, and secondary organic aerosols.

    “Ultraviolet (UV) radiation drives the net production of tropospheric ozone (O3) and a large fraction of particulate matter (PM) including sulfate, nitrate, and secondary organic aerosols.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    More intense UV-B irradiation generally induces faster chemical reactivity in air parcels, leading to faster removal of primary chemicals, but also more rapid and intense build up and removal of intermediate or secondary pollutants, including ozone, peroxides, and secondary particulate matter.

    “More intense UV-B irradiation generally induces faster chemical reactivity in air parcels (Box 1), leading to faster removal of primary chemicals, but also more rapid and intense build up (and removal) of intermediate or secondary pollutants, such as hetero-organics (e.g., aldehydes, ketones, and organic nitrates) and other by-products including O3, peroxides, and secondary PM.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Most ground-level ozone is produced by UV photochemical processing of pollutants, with occasional contributions from downward transport of ozone-rich stratospheric air.

    “Most ground-level O3 is produced by the UV photochemical processing of pollutants (see Sect. 2.1), with occasional contributions from downward transport of ozone-rich stratospheric air (see Sect. 2.7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Actions under the Montreal Protocol have led to the introduction of new chemicals to the atmosphere as replacements to some ozone-depleting substances, including HCFCs, HFCs, HFEs, HFOs and HCFOs.

    “Actions under the Montreal Protocol have led to the introduction of new chemicals to the atmosphere as replacements to some of the ozone-depleting substances, including hydrofluorochlorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), hydrofluoroethers (HFEs), hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) and hydrochlorofluoroolefins (HCFOs).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Nitrogen oxides are emitted primarily as NO, and NO2 is produced via the recycling of hydroxyl radicals generated from the UV-B photolysis of ozone.

    “Nitrogen oxides (NOx = NO + NO2) are emitted primarily as NO, and the NO2 is produced via the re-cycling of the hydroxyl radical (OH) generated from the UV-B photolysis of O3.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Chlorofluorocarbons do not react with hydroxyl radicals and have the potential to reach the stratosphere in large amounts; they were therefore replaced with chemicals that react with hydroxyl radicals.

    “Chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that do not react with OH have the potential to reach the stratosphere in large amounts; the CFCs were, therefore, replaced with chemicals that react with OH (HCFCs, HFCs, HFOs, etc.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    UV-induced photo-processes within and on the surface of aerosols can increase the ability of aerosols to act as cloud condensation nuclei, which can change cloud properties and therefore indirectly impact climate.

    “Ultraviolet-induced photo-processes within and on the surface of aerosols can also increase the ability of aerosols to act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) [73, 74], which can change cloud properties and therefore indirectly impact climate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [73] Borduas-Dedekind, N., Ossola, R., David, R. O., Boynton, L. S., Weichlinger, V., Kanji, Z. A., & McNeill, K. (2019). Photomineralization mechanism changes the ability of dissolved organic matter to activate cloud droplets and to nucleate ice crystals. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19(19), 12397–12412. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-12397-2019 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [74] Borduas-Dedekind, N., Nizkorodov, S., & McNeill, K. (2020). UVB-irradiated laboratory-generated secondary organic aerosol extracts have increased cloud condensation nuclei abilities: Comparison with dissolved organic matter and implications for the photomineralization mechanism. Chimia (Aarau), 74(3), 142–148. https://doi.org/10.2533/chimia.2020.142 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The World Health Organization estimates that 4.2 million deaths every year occur because of exposure to ambient outdoor air pollution, which includes particulates and gases such as ozone and nitrogen oxides.

    “Thus, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 4.2 million deaths every year occur because of exposure to ambient (outdoor) air pollution which includes particulates and gases, such as O3, NOx, etc. [77].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [77] WHO. (2022). Air Pollution. https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_1. Accessed Apr 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data

    Even at current levels, ground-level ozone damages vegetation and causes economically significant reductions in crop yields.

    “Even at current levels (see Figs. 2 and 3), ground-level O3 damages vegetation and causes economically significant reductions in crop yields (see Sects. 2.4 and 2.5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Even small changes in UV radiation should be of concern because of the large number of people currently exposed to poor air quality and its significance to human health.

    “However, despite this uncertainty, even small changes in UV radiation should be of concern, because of the large number of people currently exposed to poor air quality and its significance to human health.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Simulations with numerical models show several possible reasons for ozone increases including increases in UV radiation, shifts in the VOC/NOx chemical regime, higher emissions of biogenic VOC due to rising temperatures, and decreased competition for gas-phase radicals by aerosol surfaces, with reality likely being a combination of these factors.

    “Simulations with numerical models show several possible reasons including increases in UV radiation [31, 33–39], shifts in the VOC/NOx chemical regime resulting in increased production of O3 efficiency [35, 40], higher emissions of biogenic VOC due to rising temperatures [30], and decreased competition for gas-phase radicals by aerosol surfaces [34, 40], with reality likely being a combination of”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 9 sources checked
    • cites [31] Wang, W., Li, X., Shao, M., Hu, M., Zeng, L., Wu, Y., & Tan, T. (2019). The impact of aerosols on photolysis frequencies and ozone production in Beijing during the 4-year period 2012–2015. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19(14), 9413–9429. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-9413-2019 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [33] Wu, J., Bei, N., Hu, B., Liu, S., Wang, Y., Shen, Z., Li, X., Liu, L., Wang, R., Liu, Z., Cao, J., Tie, X., Molina, L. T., & Li, G. (2020). Aerosol-photolysis interaction reduces particulate matter during wintertime haze events. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(18), 9755–9761. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1916775117 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [34] Li, K., Jacob, D. J., Liao, H., Shen, L., Zhang, Q., & Bates, K. H. (2019). Anthropogenic drivers of 2013–2017 trends in summer surface ozone in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(2), 422–427. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1812168116 source

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    • cites [35] Liu, Y., & Wang, T. (2020). Worsening urban ozone pollution in China from 2013 to 2017 – Part 2: The effects of emission changes and implications for multi-pollutant control. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20(11), 6323–6337. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-6323-2020 source

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    • cites [36] Hollaway, M., Wild, O., Yang, T., Sun, Y., Xu, W., Xie, C., Whalley, L., Slater, E., Heard, D., & Liu, D. (2019). Photochemical impacts of haze pollution in an urban environment. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19(15), 9699–9714. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-9699-2019 source

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    • cites [37] Tian, R., Ma, X., Jia, H., Yu, F., Sha, T., & Zan, Y. (2019). Aerosol radiative effects on tropospheric photochemistry with GEOS-Chem simulations. Atmospheric Environment, 208, 82–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.03.032 source

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    • cites [38] Gao, J., Li, Y., Zhu, B., Hu, B., Wang, L., & Bao, F. (2020). What have we missed when studying the impact of aerosols on surface ozone via changing photolysis rates? Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20, 10831–10844. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2020-140 source

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    • cites [39] Gao, J., Li, Y., Xie, Z., Hu, B., Wang, L., Bao, F., & Fan, S. (2022). The impact of the aerosol reduction on the worsening ozone pollution over the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region via influencing photolysis rates. Science of the Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153197 source

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    • cites [40] Ma, X., Huang, J., Zhao, T., Liu, C., Zhao, K., Xing, J., & Xiao, W. (2020). Rapid increase in summer surface ozone over the North China Plain during 2013–2019: A side effect of particulate matters reduction control? Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2020-385 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Decreases in stratospheric ozone lead to increases in tropospheric UV-B radiation and concentrations of hydroxyl radicals, and therefore to faster formation of secondary particulate matter; increases in stratospheric ozone lead to slower formation.

    “Decreases (increases) in stratospheric O3 lead to increases (decreases) in tropospheric UV-B radiation and concentrations of OH radicals, and therefore to faster (slower) formation of these PM.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Secondary particulate matter is produced in the atmosphere by condensation of gases having low saturation vapor pressures.

    ““secondary” PM is produced in the atmosphere, typically by condensation of gases having low saturation vapor pressures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    While sulfate and nitrate particulate matter are of secondary origin, for organics the relative global contribution of primary and secondary particulate matter is less clear.

    “While sulfate and nitrate PM are of secondary origin, for organics the relative global contribution of primary and secondary PM is less clear.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The rate-limiting step in the production of secondary particles is the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with precursors, so the dependence of hydroxyl radicals on UV radiation applies directly to the rate of formation of secondary particulate matter.

    “The rate-limiting step in the production of these particles is the reaction of OH with the precursors (NO2, SO2, or VOCs), so that the dependence of OH on UV radiation (see Sect. 2.1) applies directly to the rate of formation of secondary PM as well.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reduced emissions have systematically improved air quality in many locations, but this has increased UV radiation near the surface, potentially negating some of the benefits of the reduced emissions.

    “Reduced emissions have systematically improved air quality in many locations, but this has increased UV radiation near the surface, potentially negating some of the benefits of the reduced emissions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Particles smaller than about 2.5 μm (PM2.5) are believed to be particularly damaging due to their ability to penetrate deeply into lungs.

    “Particulate matter is a major component of air pollution, and particles smaller than about 2.5 µm (PM2.5) are believed to be particularly damaging due to their ability to penetrate deeply into lungs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Without implementation of the Montreal Protocol, unabated growth of emissions of CFCs would have resulted in catastrophic global loss of stratospheric ozone, with major impacts on UV radiation, incidence of skin cancer, and reduction of the global carbon sink by damage to vegetation.

    “Much larger changes would have occurred without the implementation of the Montreal Protocol (the “world avoided”), where unabated growth of emissions of CFCs would have resulted in catastrophic global loss of stratospheric O3 [24], with major impacts on UV radiation [25], incidence of skin cancer [26, 27], and reduction of the global carbon sink by damage to vegetation [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [24] Newman, P. A., Oman, L. D., Douglass, A. R., Fleming, E. L., Frith, S. M., Hurwitz, M. M., Kawa, S. R., Jackman, C. H., Krotkov, N. A., Nash, E. R., Nielsen, J. E., Pawson, S., Stolarski, R. S., & Velders, G. J. M. (2009). What would have happened to the ozone layer if chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) had not been regulated? Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 9(6), 2113–2128. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-2113-2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [25] McKenzie, R., Bernhard, G., Liley, B., Disterhoft, P., Rhodes, S., Bais, A., Morgenstern, O., Newman, P., Oman, L., Brogniez, C., & Simic, S. (2019). Success of Montreal Protocol demonstrated by comparing high-quality UV measurements with “World Avoided” calculations from two chemistry-climate models. Scientific Reports, 9, 13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-48625-z source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] van Dijk, A., Slaper, H., den Outer, P. N., Morgenstern, O., Braesicke, P., Pyle, J. A., Garny, H., Stenke, A., Dameris, M., Kazantzidis, A., Tourpali, K., & Bais, A. F. (2013). Skin cancer risks avoided by the Montreal Protocol–worldwide modeling integrating coupled climate-chemistry models with a risk model for UV. Photochemistry & Photobiology, 89(1), 234–246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-1097.2012.01223.x source

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    • cites [27] Madronich, S., Lee-Taylor, J. M., Wagner, M., Kyle, J., Hu, Z., & Landolfi, R. (2021). Estimation of skin and ocular damage avoided in the United States through implementation of the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. ACS Earth and Space Chemistry, 5(8), 1876–1888. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.1c00183 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The World Health Organization updated its 2005 Global Air Quality Guidelines in September 2021.

    “In response to this, the World Health Organization (WHO) updated its 2005 Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) in September 2021 [83, 84].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [83] WHO. (2021). WHO global air quality guidelines: Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Geneva: World Health Organization

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [84] WHO. (2017). Evolution of WHO air quality guidelines: Past, present and future (2017). World Health Organization

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Exposure to air pollution can have serious effects on nearly all organ systems of the human body.

    “Evidence continues to accumulate demonstrating that exposure to air pollution can have serious effects on nearly all organ systems of the human body.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Wilson, S. R., Madronich, S., Longstreth, J. D., & Solomon, K. R. (2019). Interactive effects of changing stratospheric ozone and climate on tropospheric composition and air quality, and the consequences for human and ecosystem health. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 18, 775–803. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8pp90064g source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The new WHO air quality guidelines aim for annual mean concentrations of PM2.5 not exceeding 5 μg m−3 and NO2 not exceeding 10 μg m−3, and a peak season mean 8-h ozone concentration not exceeding 60 μg m−3.

    “The new guidelines are aiming for annual mean concentrations of PM2.5 not exceeding 5 µg m−3 and NO2 not exceeding 10 µg m−3, and the peak season mean 8-h O3 concentration not exceeding 60 µg m−3 [83].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [83] WHO. (2021). WHO global air quality guidelines: Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Geneva: World Health Organization

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In the context of the Montreal Protocol, UV-dependent secondary particulate matter (sulfate, nitrate, and secondary organics) is chemically distinct from primary, UV-independent, particulate matter.

    “In the context of the Montreal Protocol, UV-dependent secondary PM (sulfate, nitrate, and secondary organics) is chemically distinct from primary, UV-independent, PM.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The relative health impacts of secondary versus primary particulate matter are central to this assessment.

    “Thus, the relative health impacts of secondary vs. primary PM are central to this assessment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The corresponding 2005 WHO guideline values for PM2.5 and NO2 were 10 μg m−3 and 40 μg m−3, with no recommendation issued for long-term concentrations of ozone.

    “For comparison, the corresponding 2005 WHO guideline values for PM2.5 and NO2 were 10 µg m−3 and 40 µg m−3 with no recommendation issued for long-term concentrations of O3 [85].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [85] WHO. (2006). Air Quality guidelines: global update 2005: Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide (Vol. EUR/05/5046029). World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The health effects of air pollution include cardiovascular and respiratory disease, cancer, effects on the brain and the reproductive system including adverse birth outcomes.

    “As outlined in our earlier assessment, the health effects of air pollution include cardiovascular and respiratory disease, cancer, effects on the brain and the reproductive system including adverse birth outcomes [6].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Wilson, S. R., Madronich, S., Longstreth, J. D., & Solomon, K. R. (2019). Interactive effects of changing stratospheric ozone and climate on tropospheric composition and air quality, and the consequences for human and ecosystem health. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 18, 775–803. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8pp90064g source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Studies now show detrimental effects on health at relatively low levels of air pollution, many at concentrations lower than the current annual average standard.

    “With the decrease in concentrations of key pollutants, studies now show the detrimental effects on health at relatively low levels of air pollution. Many show effects at concentrations lower than the current annual average standard.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [80] Brauer, M., Brook, J. R., Christidis, T., Chu, Y., Crouse, D. L., Erickson, A., Hystad, P., Li, C., Martin, R. V., Meng, J., Pappin, A. J., Pinault, L. L., Tjepkema, M., van Donkelaar, A., Weichenthal, S., & Burnett, R. T. (2019). Mortality-air pollution associations in low-exposure environments (MAPLE): Phase 1. Research Reports: Health Effects Institute, 203, 1–87

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    • cites [81] Brunekreef, B., Strak, M., Chen, J., Andersen, Z. J., Atkinson, R., Bauwelinck, M., Bellander, T., Boutron-Ruault, M. C., Brandt, J., Carey, I., Cesaroni, G., Forastiere, F., Fecht, D., Gulliver, J., Hertel, O., Hoffmann, B., de Hoogh, K., Houthuijs, D., Hvidtfeldt, U. A., & Janssen, N. A. H., et al. (2021). Mortality and morbidity effects of long-term exposure to low-level PM2.5, BC, NO2, and O3: An analysis of European cohorts in the ELAPSE project (Vol. WA 754 R432 No. 208, HEI Report Series): Health Effects Institute

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    • cites [82] Dominici, F., Schwartz, J., Di, Q., Braun, D., Choirat, C., & Zanobetti, A. (Eds.). (2022). Assessing adverse health effects of long-term exposure to low levels of ambient air pollution: Phase 1 (2020/01/08 ed., Vol. 211, HEI Research Reports). Berlin: Health Effects Institute

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is growing evidence that exposure to air pollutants may be detrimental to the central nervous system and contribute to deficits in cognitive development, neurodegenerative diseases and dementia.

    “There is also growing evidence that exposure to air pollutants maybe detrimental to the central nervous system and contribute to deficits in cognitive development, neurodegenerative diseases and dementia [112, 113].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [112] Tham, R., & Schikowski, T. (2021). The role of traffic-related air pollution on neurodegenerative diseases in older people: An epidemiological perspective. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 79(3), 949–959. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-200813 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [113] Weuve, J., Bennett, E. E., Ranker, L., Gianattasio, K. Z., Pedde, M., Adar, S. D., Yanosky, J. D., & Power, M. C. (2021). Exposure to air pollution in relation to risk of dementia and related outcomes: An updated systematic review of the epidemiological literature. Environmental Health Perspectives, 129(9), 96001. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP8716 source

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  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    The same US Medicare study observed a significant association between NO2 exposure and Alzheimer's disease, HR 1.031 (95% CI 1.023-1.039).

    “and NO2 exposure HR = 1.031 (95% CI 1.023–1.039).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [115] Shi, L., Steenland, K., Li, H., Liu, P., Zhang, Y., Lyles, R. H., Requia, W. J., Ilango, S. D., Chang, H. H., Wingo, T., Weber, R. J., & Schwartz, J. (2021). A national cohort study (2000–2018) of long-term air pollution exposure and incident dementia in older adults in the United States. Nature Communications, 12(1), 6754. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27049-2 source

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  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    The same US Medicare study observed significant associations between exposure to PM2.5 and development of Alzheimer's disease, HR 1.078 (95% CI 1.070-1.086).

    “The authors also observed significant associations between exposure to PM2.5 and the development of Alzheimer’s disease HR = 1.078 (95% CI 1.070–1.086)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [115] Shi, L., Steenland, K., Li, H., Liu, P., Zhang, Y., Lyles, R. H., Requia, W. J., Ilango, S. D., Chang, H. H., Wingo, T., Weber, R. J., & Schwartz, J. (2021). A national cohort study (2000–2018) of long-term air pollution exposure and incident dementia in older adults in the United States. Nature Communications, 12(1), 6754. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27049-2 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ground-level ozone is a particular concern, since numerous studies have demonstrated significant damage.

    “Ground-level ozone is a particular concern, since numerous studies have demonstrated significant damage [78, 116].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [78] Lefohn, A. S., Malley, C. S., Smith, L., Wells, B., Hazucha, M., Simon, H., Naik, V., Mills, G., Schultz, M. G., Paoletti, E., De Marco, A., Xu, X., Zhang, L., Wang, T., Neufeld, H. S., Musselman, R. C., Tarasick, D., Brauer, M., Feng, Z., Tang, H., et al. (2018). Tropospheric ozone assessment report: Global ozone metrics for climate change, human health, and crop/ecosystem research. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 6, 27. https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.279 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [116] Paoletti, E., Feng, Z., De Marco, A., Hoshika, Y., Harmens, H., Agathokleous, E., Domingos, M., Mills, G., Sicard, P., Zhang, L., & Carrari, E. (2020). Challenges, gaps and opportunities in investigating the interactions of ozone pollution and plant ecosystems. Science of the Total Environment, 709, 136188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136188 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    People with cardiovascular diseases are more likely to suffer a heart attack, stroke, or death when exposed to air pollution.

    “Accordingly, people with cardiovascular diseases are more likely to suffer a heart attack, stroke, or death when exposed to air pollution [109].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [109] Rajagopalan, S., Al-Kindi, S. G., & Brook, R. D. (2018). Air pollution and cardiovascular disease: JACC state-of-the-art review. Journal of the American College of Cardiologists, 72(17), 2054–2070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2018.07.099 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The effect of PM10 during higher temperatures increased the risk of mortality by 2.1%, and for hospital admissions the effects increased by 11%.

    “The effect of PM10 during higher temperatures increased the risk of mortality by 2.1%, and for hospital admissions the effects increased by 11%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [108] Areal, A. T., Zhao, Q., Wigmann, C., Schneider, A., & Schikowski, T. (2022). The effect of air pollution when modified by temperature on respiratory health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 811, 152336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152336 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The strongest effect found in that review was with respect to PM2.5 and cognitive decline.

    “The strongest effect found was with respect to PM2.5 and cognitive decline.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [113] Weuve, J., Bennett, E. E., Ranker, L., Gianattasio, K. Z., Pedde, M., Adar, S. D., Yanosky, J. D., & Power, M. C. (2021). Exposure to air pollution in relation to risk of dementia and related outcomes: An updated systematic review of the epidemiological literature. Environmental Health Perspectives, 129(9), 96001. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP8716 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A recent review found only suggestive evidence that air pollution may influence late-life cognitive health because there is still substantial heterogeneity of findings across studies.

    “A recent review [113] found that, despite a substantial increase in publications, there is only suggestive evidence that air pollution may influence late-life cognitive health as there is still substantial heterogeneity of findings across the studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [113] Weuve, J., Bennett, E. E., Ranker, L., Gianattasio, K. Z., Pedde, M., Adar, S. D., Yanosky, J. D., & Power, M. C. (2021). Exposure to air pollution in relation to risk of dementia and related outcomes: An updated systematic review of the epidemiological literature. Environmental Health Perspectives, 129(9), 96001. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP8716 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a recent meta-analysis, effects of air pollutants were modified by high temperatures, leading to higher mortality from respiratory diseases and an increase in hospital admissions.

    “In a recent meta-analysis, Areal et al. [108] showed that effects of air pollutants were modified by high temperatures, leading to higher mortality from respiratory diseases and an increase in hospital admissions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [108] Areal, A. T., Zhao, Q., Wigmann, C., Schneider, A., & Schikowski, T. (2022). The effect of air pollution when modified by temperature on respiratory health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 811, 152336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152336 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These studies confirm results from human and other animal studies that air pollutants can enter a pregnant female's circulatory system and exert many deleterious health effects in multiple body organs including the placenta and the developing fetus.

    “These studies confirm results from human and other animal studies that air pollutants can enter a pregnant female’s circulatory system and exert many deleterious health effects in multiple body organs including the placenta and the developing fetus [111].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [111] Costello, J. M., Steurer, M. A., Baer, R. J., Witte, J. S., & Jelliffe-Pawlowski, L. L. (2022). Residential particulate matter, proximity to major roads, traffic density and traffic volume as risk factors for preterm birth in California. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 36(1), 70–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppe.12820 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Photochemical air pollution can damage plants, with potentially adverse effects on agriculture and other natural resources.

    “Photochemical air pollution can damage plants, with potentially adverse effects on agriculture and other natural resources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [78] Lefohn, A. S., Malley, C. S., Smith, L., Wells, B., Hazucha, M., Simon, H., Naik, V., Mills, G., Schultz, M. G., Paoletti, E., De Marco, A., Xu, X., Zhang, L., Wang, T., Neufeld, H. S., Musselman, R. C., Tarasick, D., Brauer, M., Feng, Z., Tang, H., et al. (2018). Tropospheric ozone assessment report: Global ozone metrics for climate change, human health, and crop/ecosystem research. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 6, 27. https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.279 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [116] Paoletti, E., Feng, Z., De Marco, A., Hoshika, Y., Harmens, H., Agathokleous, E., Domingos, M., Mills, G., Sicard, P., Zhang, L., & Carrari, E. (2020). Challenges, gaps and opportunities in investigating the interactions of ozone pollution and plant ecosystems. Science of the Total Environment, 709, 136188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136188 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Episodes of air pollution frequently occur in combination with extremes in temperature with synergistic effects on health, depending on the pollutant involved, the degree and direction of temperature change, and the characteristics of the geographic area and populations affected.

    “Episodes of air pollution frequently occur in combination with extremes in temperature with synergistic effects on health depending on the pollutant(s) involved, the degree and direction of temperature change, and the characteristics of the geographic area and the populations affected.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 9 sources checked
    • cites [98] Chersich, M. F., Pham, M. D., Areal, A., Haghighi, M. M., Manyuchi, A., Swift, C. P., Wernecke, B., Robinson, M., Hetem, R., Boeckmann, M., Hajat, S., Nakstad, B., Wright, C. Y., Harvey, C., Wang, C., Durusu, D., Scorgie, F., Rees, H., Harden, L., Roos, N., et al. (2020). Associations between high temperatures in pregnancy and risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and stillbirths: Systematic review and meta-analysis. British Medical Journal, 371, m3811. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m3811 source

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    • cites [99] Liu, Z., Meng, Y., Xiang, H., Lu, Y., & Liu, S. (2020). Association of short-term exposure to meteorological factors and risk of hand, foot, and mouth disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218017 source

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    • cites [100] Moghadamnia, M. T., Ardalan, A., Mesdaghinia, A., Keshtkar, A., Naddafi, K., & Yekaninejad, M. S. (2017). Ambient temperature and cardiovascular mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PeerJ. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3574 source

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    • cites [101] Gronlund, C. J., Sullivan, K. P., Kefelegn, Y., Cameron, L., & O’Neill, M. S. (2018). Climate change and temperature extremes: A review of heat- and cold-related morbidity and mortality concerns of municipalities. Maturitas, 114, 54–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.06.002 source

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    • cites [102] Ryti, N. R., Guo, Y., & Jaakkola, J. J. (2016). Global association of cold spells and adverse health effects: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives, 124(1), 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408104 source

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    • cites [103] Sharpe, I., & Davison, C. M. (2022). A scoping review of climate change, climate-related disasters, and mental disorders among children in low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052896 source

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    • cites [104] Syed, S., O’Sullivan, T. L., & Phillips, K. P. (2022). Extreme heat and pregnancy outcomes: A scoping review of the epidemiological evidence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042412 source

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    • cites [105] Vu, A., Rutherford, S., & Phung, D. (2019). Heat health prevention measures and adaptation in older populations—A systematic review. International Jorunal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224370 source

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    • cites [106] Zanobetti, A., & O’Neill, M. S. (2018). Longer-term outdoor temperatures and health effects: A review. Current Epidemiology Reports, 5(2), 125–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-018-0150-3 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Estimated decreases in annual national production of firewood, timber for poles, roundwood and wood for pulp and paper were 7.5%, 7.4%, 5.0%, and 4.8%, respectively.

    “Estimated decreases in the annual national production of firewood, timber for poles, roundwood and wood for pulp and paper were 7.5, 7.4, 5.0, and 4.8%, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [127] Sacchelli, S., Carrari, E., Paoletti, E., Anav, A., Hoshika, Y., Sicard, P., Screpanti, A., Chirici, G., Cocozza, C., & De Marco, A. (2021). Economic impacts of ambient ozone pollution on wood production in Italy. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-80516-6 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Physiological responses to damage from O3 might alter the ratios of pigments in plants, the phenology of flowers and whole plants, or the time of flowering, thus affecting host recognition and pollinators.

    “Also, physiological responses to damage from O3 might alter the ratios of pigments in plants, the phenology (seasonal development) of flowers and whole plants [136], or the time of flowering, thus affecting host recognition and pollinators.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [136] Duque, L., Poelman, E. H., & Steffan-Dewenter, I. (2021). Effects of ozone stress on flowering phenology, plant-pollinator interactions and plant reproductive success. Environmental Pollution, 272, 115953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115953 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ozone enters the leaf of the plant through the stomata and forms reactive oxygen species, including O2•−, H2O2, OH, 1O2, as well as reactive carbonyl species such as malondialdehyde and methylglyoxal.

    “Ozone enters the leaf of the plant through the stomata and forms ROS, which include O2•−, H2O2, OH, 1O2, as well as reactive carbonyl species such as malondialdehyde and methylglyoxal [131].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [131] Oksanen, E., & Kontunen-Soppela, S. (2021). Plants have different strategies to defend against air pollutants. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 19, 100222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2020.10.010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Tropospheric O3 has significant adverse effects on food security in some countries and this might be exacerbated in the event of super-recovery of stratospheric ozone.

    “Clearly, tropospheric O3 has significant adverse effects on food security in some countries and this might be exacerbated in the event of super-recovery of stratospheric ozone.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Argentina, exposure of soybeans to O3 at 274 μg m−3 for 7 days resulted in a reduction in below-ground biomass of 25%, a 30% reduction of nodule biomass, and a 21% reduction of biological nitrogen fixation.

    “In a study in Argentina [119], exposures of soybeans (a sensitive crop) to O3 at a concentration of 274 μg m−3 for 7 days resulted in a reduction in below-ground biomass of 25%, a 30% reduction of nodule biomass, and a 21% reduction of biological nitrogen fixation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [119] Biancari, L., Cerrotta, C., Menéndez, A. I., Gundel, P. E., & Martínez-Ghersa, M. A. (2021). Episodes of high tropospheric ozone reduce nodulation, seed production and quality in soybean (Glycine max (L.) merr.) on low fertility soils. Environmental Pollution, 269, 116117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116117 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Based on a 4-year average of tropospheric O3, estimated losses in China were 50 million tons per year for wheat, mostly winter wheat (48 million tons); 21 million tons for rice; 18 million tons for maize; and 1.6 million tons for soybeans.

    “Based on a 4-year average of tropospheric concentration of O3, estimated losses in wheat were 50 million tons per year, mostly in winter wheat (48 million tons); 21 million tons in rice; 18 million tons in maize and 1.6 million tons in soybeans [123].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [123] Wang, Y., Wild, O., Ashworth, K., Chen, X., Wu, Q., Qi, Y., & Wang, Z. (2022). Reductions in crop yields across China from elevated ozone. Environmental Pollution, 292(Pt A), 118218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118218 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    O3 could interfere with sensory organs and the ability of pollinators to sense sources of nectar or the ability of biological-control organisms to sense their target hosts.

    “O3 could also interfere with sensory organs and the ability of pollinators to sense sources of nectar or the ability of biological-control organisms to sense their target hosts [134].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134] Blande, J. D. (2021). Effects of air pollution on plant–insect interactions mediated by olfactory and visual cues. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 19, 100228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2020.100228 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In the previous Quadrennial Assessment, tropospheric O3 was noted to contribute to significant losses in quality and yield of crops, for example 10-36% for wheat and 7-24% for rice.

    “We noted that tropospheric O3 could contribute to significant losses in quality and yield of crops, e.g., 10–36% for wheat and 7–24% for rice.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Wilson, S. R., Madronich, S., Longstreth, J. D., & Solomon, K. R. (2019). Interactive effects of changing stratospheric ozone and climate on tropospheric composition and air quality, and the consequences for human and ecosystem health. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 18, 775–803. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8pp90064g source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Similar effects were echoed in other grape-growing regions across the globe.

    “Similar effects were echoed in other grape-growing regions across the globe [126].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [126] Blanco-Ward, D., Ribeiro, A., Paoletti, E., & Miranda, A. (2021). Assessment of tropospheric ozone phytotoxic effects on the grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.): A review. Atmospheric Environment, 244, 117924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117924 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Results suggested that, at the greatest air-borne exposure, development of the tadpole was delayed and susceptibility to Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis was increased.

    “Results suggested that, at the greatest air-borne exposure, development of the tadpole was delayed and that susceptibility to Bd was increased.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [130] Bosch, J., Elvira, S., Sausor, C., Bielby, J., Gonzalez-Fernandez, I., Alonso, R., & Bermejo-Bermejo, V. (2021). Increased tropospheric ozone levels enhance pathogen infection levels of amphibians. Science of the Total Environment, 759, 143461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143461 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These reaction products damage components of the cells but also stimulate signaling systems, such as the release of isoprene, to activate defense mechanisms.

    “These reaction products damage components of the cells but also stimulate signaling systems, such as the release of isoprene [132] to activate defense mechanisms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [132] Li, S., Yuan, X., Feng, Z., Du, Y., Agathokleous, E., & Paoletti, E. (2022). Whole-plant compensatory responses of isoprene emission from hybrid poplar seedlings exposed to elevated ozone. Science of the Total Environment, 806(Pt 4), 150949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150949 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Because climate change has lengthened the growing season, the total phytotoxic dose of O3 taken up by trees over the season has increased and outweighs the benefits of a decrease in concentration of tropospheric O3 (1.6%) that resulted from measures to control pollution between 2000 and 2014.

    “Because of this, the total phytotoxic dose of O3 taken up by trees over the season has increased and outweighs the benefits of a decrease in concentration of tropospheric O3 (1.6%) that resulted from measures to control pollution between 2000 and 2014.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [129] Anav, A., De Marco, A., Friedlingstein, P., Savi, F., Sicard, P., Sitch, S., Vitale, M., & Paoletti, E. (2019). Growing season extension affects ozone uptake by European forests. Science of the Total Environment, 669, 1043–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These impacts could affect both food security and forests.

    “These impacts could affect both food security and forests.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Actual O3 concentrations will depend on local and regional air quality control measures, as well as the impacts of climate change and the Montreal Protocol on stratospheric O3.

    “This could be offset by further reductions in NO and VOC emissions, so the actual O3 concentrations will depend on local and regional air quality control measures, as well as the impacts of climate change and the Montreal Protocol on stratospheric O3.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Other air pollutants co-produced with O3, such as peroxyacetyl nitrate, are phytotoxic, although their specific effects are difficult to separate from those of O3.

    “Other air pollutants co-produced with O3, e.g., peroxyacetyl nitrate (CH3C(O)O2NO2) are also phytotoxic, although their specific effects are difficult to separate from those of O3 [117].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [117] Gaffney, J. S., & Marley, N. A. (2021). The impacts of peroxyacetyl nitrate in the atmosphere of megacities and large urban areas: A historical perspective. ACS Earth and Space Chemistry, 5(8), 1829–1841 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A recent study exposed tadpoles of the midwife toad (Alytes obstetricans) to air-borne O3 at concentrations up to 180-220 μg m−3 for 8 h per day from an early stage of development to metamorphosis.

    “The authors exposed tadpoles of the midwife toad (Alytes obstetricans) to air-borne O3 at concentration up to 180–220 µg m−3 for 8 h per day from an early stage of development (limbs not yet formed) to metamorphosis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [130] Bosch, J., Elvira, S., Sausor, C., Bielby, J., Gonzalez-Fernandez, I., Alonso, R., & Bermejo-Bermejo, V. (2021). Increased tropospheric ozone levels enhance pathogen infection levels of amphibians. Science of the Total Environment, 759, 143461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143461 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Plant defenses against ozone-induced reactive oxygen species include physical actions such as closure of the stomata, biochemical responses such as release of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidases, and release of chemical buffers such as ascorbic acid, glutathione, phenolic chemicals, flavonoids, proline, other amino acids, carotenoids, tocopherols, polyamines, and sugars.

    “These defenses include physical actions, such as closure of the stomata, biochemical responses such as the release of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidases to destroy the ROS, and release of chemical buffers, such as ascorbic acid, glutathione, phenolic chemicals, flavonoids, proline [133], and other amino acids, carotenoids, tocopherols, polyamines, and sugars [131].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [131] Oksanen, E., & Kontunen-Soppela, S. (2021). Plants have different strategies to defend against air pollutants. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 19, 100222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2020.10.010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [133] Boublin, F., Cabassa-Hourton, C., Leymarie, J., & Leitao, L. (2021). Potential involvement of proline and flavonols in plant responses to ozone. Environmental Research, 207, 112214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112214 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    VSLSs are important pollutants since they can reach the lower stratosphere, despite their tropospheric lifetime of less than 6 months, and contribute to depletion of stratospheric O3.

    “VSLSs are important pollutants since they can reach the lower stratosphere, despite their tropospheric lifetime of less than 6 months, and contribute to depletion of stratospheric O3 [148, 149].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [148] Fang, X. K., Pyle, J. A., Chipperfield, M. P., Daniel, J. S., Park, S., & Prinn, R. G. (2019). Challenges for the recovery of the ozone layer. Nature Geoscience, 12(8), 592–596. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0422-7 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [149] Keber, T., Bonisch, H., Hartick, C., Hauck, M., Lefrancois, F., Obersteiner, F., Ringsdorf, A., Schohl, N., Schuck, T., Hossaini, R., Graf, P., Jockel, P., & Engel, A. (2020). Bromine from short-lived source gases in the extratropical northern hemispheric upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20(7), 4105–4132. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-4105-2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The authors of that modeling analysis suggested that the yield reduction was because of the effect of dimming of photosynthetically active radiation by aerosols but that there were some benefits from cooling and nutrients provided via the aerosols.

    “The authors suggested that this was because of the effect of dimming of photosynthetically active radiation by aerosols but that there were some benefits from cooling and nutrients provided via the aerosols.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [124] Zhang, T., Yue, X., Unger, N., Feng, Z., Zheng, B., Li, T., Lei, Y., Zhou, H., Dong, X., & Liu, Y. (2021). Modeling the joint impacts of ozone and aerosols on crop yields in China: An air pollution policy scenario analysis. Atmospheric Environment, 247, 118216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118216 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rex et al. found a lifetime of dibromomethane (CH2Br2) as long as 188 days inside an OH minimum zone over the West Pacific, while outside the OH minimum zone the lifetime of CH2Br2 was 55 days.

    “For example, Rex et al. [151] found a lifetime of dibromomethane (CH2Br2) as long as 188 days inside an OH minimum zone over the West Pacific, while outside the OH minimum zone, the lifetime of CH2Br2 was 55 days.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [151] Rex, M., Wohltmann, I., Ridder, T., Lehmann, R., Rosenlof, K., Wennberg, P., Weisenstein, D., Notholt, J., Kruger, K., Mohr, V., & Tegtmeier, S. (2014). A tropical West Pacific OH minimum and implications for stratospheric composition. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14(9), 4827–4841. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-4827-2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A modeling analysis of the effects of O3 and PM on yields of wheat and rice in China indicated that, based on current levels of O3 and aerosols, anthropogenic aerosols reduced yield of rice and wheat by 4.6% and 4.7%, respectively.

    “Based on current levels of O3 and aerosols, their results indicated that anthropogenic aerosols reduced yield of rice and wheat by 4.6 and 4.7%, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [124] Zhang, T., Yue, X., Unger, N., Feng, Z., Zheng, B., Li, T., Lei, Y., Zhou, H., Dong, X., & Liu, Y. (2021). Modeling the joint impacts of ozone and aerosols on crop yields in China: An air pollution policy scenario analysis. Atmospheric Environment, 247, 118216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118216 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In a study of water-extractable chemicals collected from PM2.5 samplers on roadsides in Hungary, 13 common roadside plants were tested for sensitivity using the OECD-227 guideline test.

    “In a study of water-extractable chemicals collected from PM2.5 samplers on roadsides in Hungary, 13 common roadside plants were tested for sensitivity using the OECD-227 guideline test [139].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [139] Kováts, N., Hubai, K., Diósi, D., Sainnokhoi, T.-A., Hoffer, A., Tóth, Á., & Teke, G. (2021). Sensitivity of typical European roadside plants to atmospheric particulate matter. Ecological Indicators, 124, 107428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107428 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The main precursor of tropospheric O3 is NOx, and the tropospheric concentration of NOx increased over 1980-2010.

    “The main precursor of tropospheric O3 is NOx, the tropospheric concentration of which has increased over 1980–2010 (Fig. 6).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [141] Stevenson, D. S., Zhao, A., Naik, V., O’Connor, F. M., Tilmes, S., Zeng, G., Murray, L. T., Collins, W. J., Griffiths, P. T., Shim, S. B., Horowitz, L. W., Sentman, L. T., & Emmons, L. (2020). Trends in global tropospheric hydroxyl radical and methane lifetime since 1850 from AerChemMIP. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20(21), 12905–12920. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-12905-2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    If emissions of CH4 from anthropogenic and natural sources continue to rise as they have since 2007, this could decrease global mean OH by up to 10% by 2050, increasing the atmospheric lifetime and concentrations of CH4 in a positive feedback.

    “If emissions of CH4 from anthropogenic and natural sources continue to rise as they have since 2007, this could decrease global mean OH by up to 10% by 2050 [147], increasing the atmospheric lifetime and concentrations of CH4 in a positive feedback.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [147] Turner, A. J., Frankenberg, C., & Kort, E. A. (2019). Interpreting contemporary trends in atmospheric methane. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(8), 2805–2813. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1814297116 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a study of combined effects of ambient atmospheric O3 and particulate matter on wheat, economic yield was reduced 34% in wheat exposed to O3 and PM, 44% in wheat exposed to PM only, and 52% in plants exposed to O3 alone.

    “Economic yield was reduced 34% in wheat exposed to O3 and PM, 44% in wheat exposed to PM only and 52% in plants exposed to O3 alone.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [140] Mina, U., Smiti, K., & Yadav, P. (2021). Thermotolerant wheat cultivar (Triticum aestivum L. var. WR544) response to ozone, EDU, and particulate matter interactive exposure. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 193(6), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09079-x source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Due to the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments, atmospheric mole fractions of CH3Br have declined considerably and, at present, emissions of CH3Br primarily stem from natural sources, with some anthropogenic sources related to commercial quarantine and pre-shipment applications.

    “Due to the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments, atmospheric mole fractions of CH3Br have declined considerably and, at present, emissions of CH3Br primarily stem from natural sources [152], with some anthropogenic sources related to commercial quarantine and pre-shipment applications.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [152] Nicewonger, M. R., Saltzman, E. S., & Montzka, S. A. (2022). ENSO-driven fires cause large interannual variability in the naturally emitted, ozone-depleting trace gas CH3Br. Geophysical Research Letters, 49, e2021GL09475. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL094756 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cl-VSLSs are mostly of anthropogenic origin, while I-VSLSs and Br-VSLSs, particularly bromoform (CHBr3) and dibromomethane (CH2Br2), are mainly produced in biotic processes and are affected by climate change, including increased coastal runoff and thawing of permafrost.

    “Cl-VSLSs are mostly of anthropogenic origin, while I-VSLSs and Br-VSLSs, particularly bromoform (CHBr3) and dibromomethane (CH2Br2) are mainly produced in biotic processes and are affected by climate change, including increased coastal runoff and thawing of permafrost [148].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [148] Fang, X. K., Pyle, J. A., Chipperfield, M. P., Daniel, J. S., Park, S., & Prinn, R. G. (2019). Challenges for the recovery of the ozone layer. Nature Geoscience, 12(8), 592–596. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0422-7 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The interannual variability in OH from these studies was large, i.e., the difference between modeled and measured OH trends was not statistically significant.

    “However, the interannual variability in OH from these studies was large, i.e., the difference between modeled and measured OH trends were not statistically significant [141].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [141] Stevenson, D. S., Zhao, A., Naik, V., O’Connor, F. M., Tilmes, S., Zeng, G., Murray, L. T., Collins, W. J., Griffiths, P. T., Shim, S. B., Horowitz, L. W., Sentman, L. T., & Emmons, L. (2020). Trends in global tropospheric hydroxyl radical and methane lifetime since 1850 from AerChemMIP. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20(21), 12905–12920. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-12905-2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the period 1980-2010, the modeled global tropospheric concentration of OH increased, mainly because of increasing concentrations of precursors of tropospheric O3 and UV radiation.

    “However, in the period 1980–2010 the modeled global tropospheric concentration of OH has increased, mainly because of increasing concentrations of precursors of tropospheric O3, and UV radiation [141].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [141] Stevenson, D. S., Zhao, A., Naik, V., O’Connor, F. M., Tilmes, S., Zeng, G., Murray, L. T., Collins, W. J., Griffiths, P. T., Shim, S. B., Horowitz, L. W., Sentman, L. T., & Emmons, L. (2020). Trends in global tropospheric hydroxyl radical and methane lifetime since 1850 from AerChemMIP. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20(21), 12905–12920. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-12905-2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The effects of PM on plants were previously assessed to be few and minor, but new studies suggest they may be important particularly in polluted areas.

    “The effects of PM on plants were previously assessed to be few and minor [5, 6], but new studies suggest they may be important particularly in polluted areas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [5] Madronich, S., Shao, M., Wilson, S. R., Solomon, K. R., Longstreth, J. D., & Tang, X. Y. (2015). Changes in air quality and tropospheric composition due to depletion of stratospheric ozone and interactions with changing climate: Implications for human and environmental health. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 14, 149–169. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4pp90037e source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [6] Wilson, S. R., Madronich, S., Longstreth, J. D., & Solomon, K. R. (2019). Interactive effects of changing stratospheric ozone and climate on tropospheric composition and air quality, and the consequences for human and ecosystem health. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 18, 775–803. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8pp90064g source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The authors of the Hungary roadside plant study concluded that particulate pollution derived from traffic added substantial additional stress to communities of plants found on roadsides.

    “The authors concluded that particulate pollution derived from traffic added substantial additional stress to communities of plants found on roadsides.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [139] Kováts, N., Hubai, K., Diósi, D., Sainnokhoi, T.-A., Hoffer, A., Tóth, Á., & Teke, G. (2021). Sensitivity of typical European roadside plants to atmospheric particulate matter. Ecological Indicators, 124, 107428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107428 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The production of CH3Br in seawater is a biological process mediated by phytoplankton such as diatoms.

    “The production of CH3Br in seawater is a biological process mediated by phytoplankton such as diatoms [153].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [153] Liu, S. S., Yang, G. P., He, Z., Gao, X. X., & Xu, F. (2021). Oceanic emissions of methyl halides and effect of nutrients concentration on their production: A case of the western Pacific Ocean (2 degrees N to 24 degrees N). Science of the Total Environment, 769, 144488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144488 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Hungary roadside plant study was conducted during mid-winter and near sources, implying that most of the PM was primary rather than secondary, and hence insensitive to any changes in UV radiation.

    “The study was conducted during mid-winter and near sources, implying that most of the PM was primary rather than secondary, and hence insensitive to any changes in UV radiation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [139] Kováts, N., Hubai, K., Diósi, D., Sainnokhoi, T.-A., Hoffer, A., Tóth, Á., & Teke, G. (2021). Sensitivity of typical European roadside plants to atmospheric particulate matter. Ecological Indicators, 124, 107428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107428 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The loss from O3 is greater than that from aerosols, but they do act additively.

    “The loss from O3 is greater than that from aerosols but they do act additively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Global emissions of NOx peaked around 2012, followed by reductions.

    “Global emissions of NOx peaked around 2012, followed by reductions [143].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [143] McDuffie, E. E., Smith, S. J., O’Rourke, P., Tibrewal, K., Venkataraman, C., Marais, E. A., Zheng, B., Crippa, M., Brauer, M., & Martin, R. V. (2020). A global anthropogenic emission inventory of atmospheric pollutants from sector- And fuel-specific sources (1970–2017): An application of the Community Emissions Data System (CEDS). Earth System Science Data, 12(4), 3413–3442. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3413-2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is likely that the adverse effects of aerosols and tropospheric O3 on plants will be localized and could be mitigated by increased controls of tropospheric air pollutants.

    “However, it is likely that these effects will be localized and could be mitigated by increased controls of tropospheric air pollutants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    For studies inferring OH from chemical removal, methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3) is often used to infer concentrations of OH.

    “For such studies, methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3) is often used [145] to infer concentrations of OH.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [145] Naus, S., Montzka, S. A., Patra, P. K., & Krol, M. C. (2021). A three-dimensional-model inversion of methyl chloroform to constrain the atmospheric oxidative capacity. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 21(6), 4809–4824. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-4809-2021 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Efforts are underway to use measurements of the chemical composition of air on commercial aircraft to build up a robust climatology, which can help modeling.

    “Efforts are now underway to use measurements of the chemical composition of air on commercial aircraft to build up a robust climatology, which can help modeling [166].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [166] Cohen, Y., Marecal, V., Josse, B., & Thouret, V. (2021). Interpol-IAGOS: A new method for assessing long-term chemistry-climate simulations in the UTLS based on IAGOS data, and its application to the MOCAGE CCMI REF-C1SD simulation. Geoscientific Model Development, 14(5), 2659–2689. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-2659-2021 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tropopause folds are not uniformly distributed longitudinally and are common over the Eastern Mediterranean, where they have been identified as a significant cause of elevated concentrations of O3 at ground level that are greater than the European Union air-quality standards.

    “These folds are not uniformly distributed longitudinally [162, 163] and are common over the Eastern Mediterranean, where they have been identified as a significant cause of elevated concentrations of O3 at ground level that are greater than the European Union air-quality standards [164].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [162] Akritidis, D., Pozzer, A., Flemming, J., Inness, A., & Zanis, P. (2021). A global climatology of tropopause folds in CAMS and MERRA-2 reanalyses. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 126(8), e2020JD034115. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD034115 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [163] Liu, J. H., Rodriguez, J. M., Oman, L. D., Douglass, A. R., Olsen, M. A., & Hu, L. (2020). Stratospheric impact on the Northern Hemisphere winter and spring ozone interannual variability in the troposphere. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20(11), 6416–6432. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-6417-2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [164] Dafka, S., Akritidis, D., Zanis, P., Pozzer, A., Xoplaki, E., Luterbacher, J., & Zerefos, C. (2021). On the link between the Etesian winds, tropopause folds and tropospheric ozone over the Eastern Mediterranean during summer. Atmospheric Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2020.105161 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Air rich in O3 is injected into the troposphere at the edges of the tropics via folds, where thin layers of air from the stratosphere are surrounded vertically by air from the troposphere and vice versa.

    “Air rich in O3 is injected into the troposphere at the edges of the tropics via “folds” (Fig. 8), where thin layers of air from the stratosphere are surrounded (vertically) by air from the troposphere and vice versa.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There are ongoing efforts to improve the use of measurements of O3 by satellites in atmospheric modeling, and potentially O3 sondes and in situ measurements.

    “Similarly, there are ongoing efforts to improve the use of measurements of O3 by satellites in atmospheric modeling [167], and potentially O3 sondes and in situ measurements.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [167] Huijnen, V., Miyazaki, K., Flemming, J., Inness, A., Sekiya, T., & Schultz, M. G. (2020). An intercomparison of tropospheric ozone reanalysis products from CAMS, CAMS interim, TCR-1, and TCR-2. Geoscientific Model Development, 13(3), 1513–1544. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-1513-2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Typically, the magnitude of stratospheric-tropospheric exchange is inferred as the difference between the calculated production and loss of O3 (the residual) rather than modeling STE transport itself.

    “Typically, the magnitude of the STE is inferred as the difference between the calculated production and loss of O3 (termed the residual) rather than modeling STE transport itself [158].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [158] Griffiths, P. T., Murray, L. T., Zeng, G., Shin, Y. M., Abraham, N. L., Archibald, A. T., Deushi, M., Emmons, L. K., Galbally, I. E., Hassler, B., Horowitz, L. W., Keeble, J., Liu, J., Moeini, O., Naik, V., O’Connor, F. M., Oshima, N., Tarasick, D., Tilmes, S., Turnock, S. T., et al. (2021). Tropospheric ozone in CMIP6 simulations. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 21(5), 4187–4218. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-4187-2021 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A modeling and observational study of regional changes in O3 concentration in the troposphere for the period 1980-1990 through 2000-2010 suggests an increase in the concentration of O3 at the Earth's surface, but other studies found that stratospheric O3 led to a small increase over this period in the Northern Hemisphere and no significant change in the Southern Hemisphere.

    “In contrast, the results of a modeling and observational study of the regional changes in O3 concentration in the troposphere for the period 1980–1990 through to 2000–2010 [154] suggest an increase in the concentration of O3 at the Earth’s surface, but the other studies (noted above) found that stratospheric O3 led to a small increase over this period in the Northern Hemisphere and no significant”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [154] Williams, R. S., Hegglin, M. I., Kerridge, B. J., Jöckel, P., Latter, B. G., & Plummer, D. A. (2019). Characterising the seasonal and geographical variability in tropospheric ozone, stratospheric influence and recent changes. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19(6), 3589–3620. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-3589-2019 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Methods for identifying folds within model output are being improved and are showing some promising consistency among different models.

    “Methods for identifying folds within model output are being improved [e.g., [165] and showing some promising consistency among different models [162].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [165] Akritidis, D., Pozzer, A., & Zanis, P. (2019). On the impact of future climate change on tropopause folds and tropospheric ozone. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19(22), 14387–14401. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-14387-2019 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [162] Akritidis, D., Pozzer, A., Flemming, J., Inness, A., & Zanis, P. (2021). A global climatology of tropopause folds in CAMS and MERRA-2 reanalyses. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 126(8), e2020JD034115. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD034115 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When assessing the relative importance of changes in GHGs versus ODSs in driving changes in stratospheric-tropospheric exchange, the models did not obtain a consistent picture, although the two factors appear to be of similar magnitude.

    “When assessing the relative importance of changes in GHGs vs ODSs in driving the changes in STE, they did not obtain a consistent picture from the models, although it appears that the two factors are of similar magnitude [161].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [161] Abalos, M., Orbe, C., Kinnison, D. E., Plummer, D., Oman, L. D., Jöckel, P., Morgenstern, O., Garcia, R. R., Zeng, G., Stone, K. A., & Dameris, M. (2020). Future trends in stratosphere-to-troposphere transport in CCMI models. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20(11), 6883–6901. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-6883-2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Calculations using the RCP8.5 scenario showed a marked increase in the concentration of O3 in the troposphere, with a threefold larger amount of O3 transported from the stratosphere than the RCP6.0 scenario.

    “Calculations using the RCP8.5 scenario showed a marked increase in the concentration of O3 in the troposphere, with a threefold larger amount of O3 transported from the stratosphere than the RCP6.0 scenario [161].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [161] Abalos, M., Orbe, C., Kinnison, D. E., Plummer, D., Oman, L. D., Jöckel, P., Morgenstern, O., Garcia, R. R., Zeng, G., Stone, K. A., & Dameris, M. (2020). Future trends in stratosphere-to-troposphere transport in CCMI models. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20(11), 6883–6901. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-6883-2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    A second confounding factor is that models have used different definitions of the upper boundary (tropopause) of the troposphere.

    “A second confounding factor is that models have used different definitions of the upper boundary (tropopause) of the troposphere.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Quantifying the transport of O3 from the stratosphere is important to understanding tropospheric air quality but remains difficult.

    “Quantifying the transport of O3 from the stratosphere is therefore important to understanding tropospheric air quality but remains difficult.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Using observations to constrain models introduces sensitivity to changes in quality and calibration of the input data and this requires careful assessment.

    “Using observations to constrain models introduces sensitivity to changes in quality and calibration of the input data and this requires careful assessment [167, 168]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [167] Huijnen, V., Miyazaki, K., Flemming, J., Inness, A., Sekiya, T., & Schultz, M. G. (2020). An intercomparison of tropospheric ozone reanalysis products from CAMS, CAMS interim, TCR-1, and TCR-2. Geoscientific Model Development, 13(3), 1513–1544. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-1513-2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [168] Krizan, P., Kozubek, M., & Lastovicka, J. (2019). Discontinuities in the ozone concentration time series from MERRA 2 reanalysis. Atmosphere. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10120812 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is not possible to infer the magnitude of changes in O3 at ground level from these models, as they report O3 concentrations averaged for the entire vertical extent of the troposphere, and the impact of stratospheric O3 is much larger in the upper troposphere than at the Earth's surface.

    “It is not possible to infer the magnitude of the changes in O3 at ground level from these models, as they report O3 concentrations averaged for the entire vertical extent of the troposphere, and the impact of stratospheric O3 is much larger in the upper troposphere than at the Earth’s surface.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The IPCC AR6 assessment reports a value of 628 ± 800 Tg year−1 for stratospheric-tropospheric exchange of O3 for 2010, with the large uncertainty highlighting how poorly this value is known.

    “The IPCC AR6 assessment reports a value of 628 ± 800 Tg year−1 for 2010, with the large uncertainty highlighting how poorly this value is known [11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Szopa, S., Naik, V., Adhikary, B., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Collins, W. D., Fuzzi, S., Gallardo, L., Scharr, A. K., Klimont, Z., Liao, H., Unger, N., & Zanis, P. (2021). Short-lived climate forcers. In V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, & B. Zhou (Eds.), Climate Change 2021: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chan

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Other recent estimates of stratospheric-tropospheric exchange include 347 ± 12 Tg year−1 (2007-2010) and 400 ± 60 Tg year−1 (1990-2017).

    “Other recent estimates include 347 ± 12 Tg year−1 (2007–2010) [156] and 400 ± 60 Tg year−1 (1990–2017) [157].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [156] Wang, M., & Fu, Q. (2021). Stratosphere-troposphere exchange of air masses and ozone concentrations based on reanalyses and observations. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 126(18), e2021JD035159. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JD035159 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [157] Ruiz, D. J., & Prather, M. J. (2022). From the middle stratosphere to the surface, using nitrous oxide to constrain the stratosphere–troposphere exchange of ozone. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 22(3), 2079–2093. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-2079-2022 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These production and loss terms are an order of magnitude larger (around 5000 Tg year−1) than the estimated transport, so that their difference is highly uncertain.

    “These production and loss terms are an order of magnitude larger (around 5000 Tg year−1) than the estimated transport [e.g., 159], so that their difference is highly uncertain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [159] Hu, L., Jacob, D. J., Liu, X., Zhang, Y., Zhang, L., Kim, P. S., Sulprizio, M. P., & Yantosca, R. M. (2017). Global budget of tropospheric ozone: Evaluating recent model advances with satellite (OMI), aircraft (IAGOS), and ozonesonde observations. Atmospheric Environment, 167, 323–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.08.036 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    An assessment of amounts of O3 in the troposphere shows that model estimates of STE were around 1000 Tg year−1 O3 for results reported in 1995 but by 2015 models provided estimates approaching 400 Tg year−1, with a multi-model estimate of 535 ± 160 Tg year−1 for the year 2000.

    “An assessment of amounts of O3 in the troposphere shows that model estimates of STE were around 1000 Tg year−1 O3 for results reported in 1995 but by 2015 models provided estimates approaching 400 Tg year−1, with a multi-model estimate of 535 ± 160 Tg year−1 for the year 2000 [155].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155] Archibald, A. T., Neu, J. L., Elshorbany, Y. F., Cooper, O. R., Young, P. J., Akiyoshi, H., Cox, R. A., Coyle, M., Derwent, R. G., Deushi, M., Finco, A., Frost, G. J., Galbally, I. E., Gerosa, G., Granier, C., Griffiths, P. T., Hossaini, R., Hu, L., Jöckel, P., Josse, B., et al. (2020). Tropospheric Ozone Assessment Report: A critical review of changes in the tropospheric ozone burden and budget from 1850 to 2100. Elementa Science of the Anthropocene, 8(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.2020.034 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Recovery of stratospheric O3, and hence lower intensity of ground-level UV-B radiation, is expected to slightly improve air quality in cities in mid-latitudes but slightly worsen air quality in rural areas.

    “Overall, recovery of stratospheric O3, and hence lower intensity of ground-level UV-B radiation, is expected to slightly improve air quality in cities in mid-latitudes but slightly worsen air quality in rural areas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Polar stratospheric ozone depletion strengthens the stratospheric polar vortex and contributes to changes in weather patterns, including extreme weather events.

    “Changes in weather patterns, including extreme weather events, are not only caused by climate change but also by polar stratospheric ozone depletion, which strengthens the stratospheric polar vortex.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [23] Bernhard, G. H., Bais, A. F., Aucamp, P. J., Klekociuk, A. R., Liley, J. B., & McKenzie, R. L. (2023). Stratospheric ozone, UV radiation, and climate interactions. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43630-023-00371-y source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [169] Barnes, P. W., Robson, T. M., Zepp, R. G., Bornman, J. F., Jansen, M. A. K., Ossola, R., Wang, Q.-W., Robinson, S. A., Foereid, B., Klekociuk, A. R., Martinez-Abaigar, J., Hou, W. C., & Paul, N. D. (2023). Interactive effects of changes in UV radiation and climate on terrestrial ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles, and feedbacks to the climate system. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43630-023-00376-7 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [170] Robinson, S. A., & Erickson Iii, D. J. (2015). Not just about sunburn – the ozone hole’s profound effect on climate has significant implications for Southern Hemisphere ecosystems. Global Change Biology, 21(2), 515–527. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12739 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Whether such events will occur in the future depends on trends in emissions of ODSs and GHGs, since GHGs affect the Arctic stratosphere via radiative cooling.

    “Whether such events will occur in the future depends on trends in the emissions of ODSs and GHGs, since GHGs affect the Arctic stratosphere via radiative cooling [180].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [180] von der Gathen, P., Kivi, R., Wohltmann, I., Salawitch, R. J., & Rex, M. (2021). Climate change favours large seasonal loss of Arctic ozone. Nature Communications, 12(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24089-6 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Recovery of stratospheric O3 should decrease the stability of the Antarctic polar vortex, leading to wetter conditions in the Southern Hemisphere in the near future for this region.

    “However, the recovery of stratospheric O3 should decrease the stability of the Antarctic polar vortex, which should lead to wetter conditions in the Southern Hemisphere in the near future for this region.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    UV-B radiation and climate change affect concentrations of tropospheric OH with potential feedbacks on climate change and on stratospheric ozone.

    “Hence, UV-B radiation and climate change affect concentrations of tropospheric OH with potential feedbacks on climate change and on stratospheric ozone.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The total known use and release of HFC-134a, HFC-143a, and HFC-227ea between 1990 and 2015 is complete for calculating the theoretical maximum TFA production.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The degradation half-life of TFA in the environment is very long (approximately centuries).

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In future, these data should allow better quantification of the changes in tropospheric O3 that are caused by changes in stratospheric O3.

    “In future, these data should allow better quantification of the changes in tropospheric O3 that are caused by changes in stratospheric O3.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts and therefore wildfires in both hemispheres is influenced by direct effects of climate change and by changes in atmospheric circulation and in polar stratospheric O3.

    “Hence, the frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts and therefore wildfires in both hemispheres is influenced by direct effects of climate change and by changes in atmospheric circulation and in polar stratospheric O3.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The El Niño Southern Oscillation and the Indian Ocean Dipole affect weather conditions in Australia.

    “In addition to the strength of the stratospheric polar vortex, the El Niño Southern Oscillation and the Indian Ocean Dipole also affect weather conditions in Australia [172].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [172] Lim, E.-P., Hendon, H. H., Boschat, G., Hudson, D., Thompson, D. W. J., Dowdy, A. J., & Arblaster, J. M. (2019). Australian hot and dry extremes induced by weakenings of the stratospheric polar vortex. Nature Geoscience, 12(11), 896–901. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0456-x source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Arctic stratospheric ozone depletion results in a shift of the Arctic Oscillation to more positive values and a more zonal Northern Hemisphere jet stream.

    “Similarly to the effects of the atmospheric dynamics of the Antarctic ozone hole, Arctic stratospheric ozone depletion results in a shift of the Arctic Oscillation (AO) to more positive values (e.g., [177]) and a more zonal Northern Hemisphere jet stream.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [177] Lawrence, Z. D., Perlwitz, J., Butler, A. H., Manney, G. L., Newman, P. A., Lee, S. H., & Nash, E. R. (2020). The remarkably strong arctic stratospheric polar vortex of winter 2020: Links to record-breaking Arctic oscillation and ozone loss. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020jd033271 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    TFA and its salts will not bioaccumulate in organisms other than terrestrial plants and will not biomagnify in food chains.

    “These properties indicate that TFA and its salts will not bioaccumulate in organisms other than terrestrial plants and will not biomagnify in food chains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TFA is a strong acid with a pKa of 0.3 and is completely miscible with water.

    “The physical and chemical properties of TFA are well known [201] but key to assessing environmental risk is that it is a strong acid with a pKa of 0.3 and is completely miscible with water [190].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [190] PubChem. (2022). Trifluoroacetic acid. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/6422. Accessed 1 Jan 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Much of the impact of air pollutants is due to chemicals produced by UV-B-initiated photochemistry, including O3 and PM, i.e., secondary inorganic and organic aerosols.

    “Much of the impact of air pollutants is due to chemicals produced by UV-B-initiated photochemistry, including O3 and PM, i.e., secondary inorganic and organic aerosols.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The theory that TFA can be formed from geogenic sources has been challenged.

    “However, the theory that TFA can be formed from geogenic sources has been challenged [229].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [229] Joudan, S., DeSilva, A. O., & Young, C. (2021). Insufficient evidence for the existence of natural trifluoroacetic acid. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 23, 1641–1649. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1em00306b source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Concentrations of TFA increase with proximity to locations of undersea volcanic vents.

    “This is consistent with the report that concentrations of TFA increase with proximity to locations of undersea volcanic vents [227, 228].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [227] Scott, B., Macdonald, R., Kannan, K., Fisk, A., Witter, A., Yamashita, N., Durham, L., Spencer, C., & Muir, D. (2005). Trifluoroacetate profiles in the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific oceans. Environmental Science & Technology, 39, 6555–6560. https://doi.org/10.1021/es047975u source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [228] Scott, B. F., Spencer, C., Martin, J. W., Barra, R., Bootsma, H. A., Jones, K. C., Johnston, A. E., & Muir, D. C. G. (2005). Comparison of haloacetic acids in the environment of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Environmental Science & Technology, 39(22), 8664–8670. https://doi.org/10.1021/es050118l source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Since early reports, it was believed that there are natural sources of TFA.

    “Since the early reports of the widespread presence of TFA in marine waters [213, 226] and its association with 14C-dated deep waters older than 1000 years [227], it was believed that there are natural sources of TFA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [213] Frank, H., Christoph, E. H., Holm-Hansen, O., & Bullister, J. L. (2002). Trifluoroacetate in ocean waters. Environmental Science & Technology, 36, 12–15. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0101532 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [226] Frank, H., Klein, A., & Renschen, D. (1996). Environmental trifluoroacetate. Nature, 382, 34–34. https://doi.org/10.1038/382034a0 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [227] Scott, B., Macdonald, R., Kannan, K., Fisk, A., Witter, A., Yamashita, N., Durham, L., Spencer, C., & Muir, D. (2005). Trifluoroacetate profiles in the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific oceans. Environmental Science & Technology, 39, 6555–6560. https://doi.org/10.1021/es047975u source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Maize and poplar plants take up TFA from contaminated soils.

    “As discussed in the previous update report [225], maize and poplar plants take up TFA from contaminated soils [236].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [236] Lan, Z., Yao, Y., Xu, J., Chen, H., Ren, C., Fang, X., Zhang, K., Jin, L., Hua, X., & Alder, A. C. (2020). Novel and legacy per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in a farmland environment: Soil distribution and biomonitoring with plant leaves and locusts. Environmental Pollution, 263, 114487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114487 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    That the Dead Sea TFA amount measured in the 1990s is all from anthropogenic sources is very unlikely, and geogenic sources are more plausible.

    “That this amount of TFA (measured in the 1990s) is all from anthropogenic sources is very unlikely, and geogenic sources are more plausible.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The sources of TFA in archived leaves are replacements for CFCs, mostly from precipitation, and the authors are likely correct in this conclusion.

    “The authors suggest that the sources of TFA are replacements for the CFCs, mostly from precipitation. The authors are likely correct in this conclusion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [222] Freeling, F., Scheurer, M., Koschorreck, J., Hoffmann, G., Ternes, T. A., & Nödler, K. (2022). Levels and temporal trends of trifluoroacetate (TFA) in archived plants: Evidence for increasing emissions of gaseous TFA precursors over the last decades. Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 5, 400–405. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.2c00164 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If the half-life of TFA is very long (≈ centuries), very small amounts could accumulate over time to explain the amounts observed in oceans and endorheic basins.

    “If, as seems to be the case, the half-life is likely very long (≈ centuries), very small amounts could accumulate over time to explain the amounts observed in oceans and endorheic basins.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The degradation half-life of TFA in the environment is very long (approximately centuries).

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The source of TFA in German rainwater was most likely degradation of fluorinated gases in the troposphere, and the seasonality is suggested to be due to seasonal changes in solar UV radiation and photochemical formation of OH radicals.

    “The source of the TFA was most likely degradation of fluorinated gases in the troposphere and the authors suggest that the seasonality is because of seasonal changes in solar UV radiation and the photochemical formation of OH radicals responsible for production of TFA in the troposphere [220].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [220] Freeling, F., Behringer, D., Heydel, F., Scheurer, M., Ternes, T. A., & Nödler, K. (2020). Trifluoroacetate in precipitation: Deriving a benchmark dataset. Environmental Science & Technology, 54, 11210–11219. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c02910 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Concentrations of PFOS and PFOA in serum were greater than TFA, and these chemicals are more toxic than TFA and are retained in the body for longer periods.

    “Concentrations of PFOS and PFOA were greater than TFA and these chemicals are more toxic than TFA and are retained in the body for longer periods (Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [242] Duan, Y., Sun, H., Yao, Y., Meng, Y., & Li, Y. (2020). Distribution of novel and legacy per-/polyfluoroalkyl substances in serum and its associations with two glycemic biomarkers among Chinese adult men and women with normal blood glucose levels. Environment International, 134, 105295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105295 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The frequency of detection of TFA in serum was 97%, but 12 other PFAS had greater frequencies of detection.

    “The frequency of detection of TFA was 97% but 12 other PFAS had greater frequencies of detection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [242] Duan, Y., Sun, H., Yao, Y., Meng, Y., & Li, Y. (2020). Distribution of novel and legacy per-/polyfluoroalkyl substances in serum and its associations with two glycemic biomarkers among Chinese adult men and women with normal blood glucose levels. Environment International, 134, 105295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105295 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some bacteria use fluoxetine as a sole source of carbon and the terminal metabolite is TFA, which is not further metabolized.

    “Some bacteria use fluoxetine (Prozac®, CAS# 54,910-89-3) as a sole source of carbon and the terminal metabolite is TFA [249], which is not further metabolized.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [249] Khan, M. F., & Murphy, C. D. (2021). Bacterial degradation of the anti-depressant drug fluoxetine produces trifluoroacetic acid and fluoride ion. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 105, 9359–9369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-021-11675-3 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The original source(s) of contamination in the dusts are unknown, but there were amounts of unknown precursors (37 − 67 mol %) for PFAS in the dust.

    “The original source(s) of the contamination in the dusts are unknown but there were amounts of unknown precursors (37 − 67 mol %) for PFAS in the dust [245].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [245] Wang, B., Yao, Y., Wang, Y., Chen, H., & Sun, H. (2021). Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances in outdoor and indoor dust from Mainland China: Contributions of unknown precursors and implications for human exposure. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(10), 6036–6045. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c08242 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Median concentrations of TFA in outdoor dust from six locations in China ranged from 61,000 to 222,000 μg a.e. kg−1 with no consistent differences between rural and urban sites.

    “Median concentrations of TFA in outdoor dust from six locations in China ranged from 61,000 to 222,000 µg a.e. kg−1 with no consistent differences between rural and urban sites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [245] Wang, B., Yao, Y., Wang, Y., Chen, H., & Sun, H. (2021). Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances in outdoor and indoor dust from Mainland China: Contributions of unknown precursors and implications for human exposure. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(10), 6036–6045. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c08242 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The authors of the serum study reported an association between the sum of PFAS concentrations and biomarkers of diabetes but offered no insight as to causality by a specific chemical or route of exposure.

    “The authors reported an association between the sum of the concentrations of PFAS and biomarkers of diabetes but offered no insight as to causality by a specific chemical or the route of exposure to these chemicals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [242] Duan, Y., Sun, H., Yao, Y., Meng, Y., & Li, Y. (2020). Distribution of novel and legacy per-/polyfluoroalkyl substances in serum and its associations with two glycemic biomarkers among Chinese adult men and women with normal blood glucose levels. Environment International, 134, 105295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105295 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These serum TFA values are 4.4 orders of magnitude less than the NOED for TFA in rats and do not suggest biologically significant risks for humans.

    “These values are 4.4 orders of magnitude less than the NOED (No Observed Effect Dose) for TFA in rats (discussed below) and do not suggest biologically significant risks for humans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    As of 2020, the number of pharmaceuticals containing fluorine atom(s) was 369, and in 2021, 13 new products containing fluorine were added; of these, 77 contain C-CF3 moieties.

    “As of 2020, the number of pharmaceuticals containing fluorine atom(s) was 369 [247] and in 2021, 13 new products containing fluorine were added [248]. Of these, 77 contain C–CF3 moieties [from Fig. 4 in [247]].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [247] Inoue, M., Sumii, Y., & Shibata, N. (2020). Contribution of organofluorine compounds to pharmaceuticals. ACS Omega, 5(19), 10633–10640. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c00830 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [248] Yu, Y., Liu, A., Dhawan, G., Mei, H., Zhang, W., Izawa, K., Soloshonok, V. A., & Han, J. (2021). Fluorine-containing pharmaceuticals approved by the FDA in 2020: Synthesis and biological activity. Chinese Chemical Letters. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2021.05.042 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TFA can be formed from some fluoro-pharmaceuticals during treatment of water with O3; the molar yield of TFA from fluoxetine solutions treated with O3 at 4 mg L−1 was as large as 40%.

    “TFA can also be formed from some fluoro-pharmaceuticals during treatment of water with O3. The molar yield of TFA from fluoxetine solutions treated with O3 at 4 mg L−1 was as large as 40% [202].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [202] Scheurer, M., Nödler, K., Freeling, F., Janda, J., Happel, O., Riegel, M., Müller, U., Storck, F. R., Fleig, M., Lange, F. T., Brunsch, A., & Brauch, H.-J. (2017). Small, mobile, persistent: Trifluoroacetate in the water cycle—Overlooked sources, pathways, and consequences for drinking water supply. Water Research, 126, 460–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.09.045 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The median concentration of TFA in serum of volunteers was 8460 ng L−1 and the 75th centile was 12,550 ng a.e. L−1.

    “The median concentration of TFA in serum of the volunteers was 8460 ng L−1 and the 75th centile was 12,550 ng a.e. L−1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [242] Duan, Y., Sun, H., Yao, Y., Meng, Y., & Li, Y. (2020). Distribution of novel and legacy per-/polyfluoroalkyl substances in serum and its associations with two glycemic biomarkers among Chinese adult men and women with normal blood glucose levels. Environment International, 134, 105295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105295 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The potential annual production of TFA from use of pesticides in Germany was 504 tons per year, based on a mean of 3 years.

    “The potential annual production of TFA from use of pesticides in Germany was 504 tons per year (Fig. 14), based on a mean of 3 years) but should not be compared directly with the data from the United States (Table 4), which presents total estimated use over 26 years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [214] UBA. (2021). Persistent degradation products of halogenated refrigerants and blowing agents in the environment: Type, environmental concentrations, and fate with particular regard to new halogenated substitutes with low global warming potential (Vol. FB000452/ENG). Umwelt Bundesamt

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Salts of TFA have low toxicity to animals and plants and there are very wide margins between current/projected exposures and toxicity values.

    “Salts of TFA have low toxicity to animals and plants and there are very wide margins between current/projected exposures and toxicity values.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is some uncertainty in the environmental toxicity values because only two marine species are included in the toxicity data set for aquatic species, and marine macrophytes, which are keystone species with respect to habitat, have not been tested.

    “However, there is some uncertainty in the environmental toxicity values because only two marine species are included in the toxicity data set for aquatic species; and marine macrophytes, which are keystone species with respect to habitat, have not been tested.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The Montreal Protocol has led to the replacement of ODSs with fluorinated chemicals.

    “The Montreal Protocol has led to the replacement of ODSs with fluorinated chemicals”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Photolysis of the lampricide TFM used to control sea lamprey in the North American Great Lakes results in the formation of TFA, with yields dependent on pH and ranging from 5 to 18%.

    “Studies on the photolysis of the lampricide 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol (TFM CAS# 88–30-2) used to control the sea lamprey in the North American Great Lakes have shown that photolysis (365 nm) results in the formation of TFA [255]. Yields were dependent on the pH of the solution and ranged from 5 to 18%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [255] Ellis, D. A., & Mabury, S. A. (2000). The aqueous photolysis of TFM and related trifluoromethylphenols. An alternate source of trifluoroacetic acid in the environment. Environmental Science & Technology, 34, 632–637. https://doi.org/10.1021/es990422c source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    UV-B radiation is essential to the formation of photochemical smog, including ground-level O3 and particulate matter.

    “UV-B radiation is essential to the formation of photochemical smog, including ground-level O3, particulate matter”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This persistence is not a major concern because it does not react with biomolecules.

    “This persistence is not a major concern because it does not react with biomolecules.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    MIR studies and atmospheric modeling studies of HFO-1234yf have shown that O3 production from HFO-1234yf is indistinguishable from that from ethane, and that replacing HFC-134a in vehicle air conditioning units with HFO-1234yf across the United States has a negligible impact (< 0.01%) on the formation of tropospheric ozone.

    “Still, MIR studies and atmospheric modeling studies of HFO-1234yf, have shown that O3 production from HFO-1234yf is indistinguishable from that from ethane (also consistent with Online Resource Table 3), and that replacing HFC-134a in vehicle air conditioning units with HFO-1234yf across the United States has a negligible impact (< 0.01%) on the formation of tropospheric ozone.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [267] Carter, W. P. L. (1994). Development of ozone reactivity scales for volatile organic compounds. Air & Waste, 44, 881–899. https://doi.org/10.1080/1073161X.1994.10467290 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [269] Carter, W. P. L. (2009). Investigation of Atmospheric Ozone Impacts of Trans 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene, Final Report for Contract UCR-09010016. Center for Environmental Research and Technology, College of Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because of its lack of reactivity, TFA salts are persistent in the environment and estimates of half-life are uncertain but could be in the range of centuries or millennia.

    “Because of its lack of reactivity, TFA salts are persistent in the environment and estimates of half-life are uncertain but could be in the range of centuries or millennia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    HFOs and HCFOs have shorter lifetimes in the atmosphere and deposition of TFA from these substances is likely to be more localized, resulting in greater concentrations near the locations of release.

    “The HFOs and HCFOs have shorter lifetimes in the atmosphere and deposition of TFA from these substances is likely to be more localized. This will result in greater concentrations near the locations of release.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Future changes in UV-B radiation are uncertain.

    “Future changes in UV-B radiation are uncertain”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Interactions with climate change complicate predictions.

    “however, interactions with climate change complicate predictions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This localized deposition is unlikely to present a risk to humans or the environment in these locations, but changes in concentration in surface water (or soil) would respond rapidly to releases.

    “This is unlikely to present a risk to humans or the environment in these locations but changes in concentration in surface water (or soil) would respond rapidly to releases.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    TFA and its salts are easily excreted by animals and do not bioaccumulate in food chains.

    “TFA and its salts are easily excreted by animals and do not bioaccumulate in food chains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Current and projected (to 2100) concentrations of TFA in the oceans provide a very large margin of exposure (thousand-fold) when compared to thresholds of toxicity, and risks to the environment and human health are de minimis.

    “Current and projected (to 2100) concentrations of TFA in the oceans provide a very large margin of exposure (thousand-fold) when compared to thresholds of toxicity, and risks to the environment and human health are de minimis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some pesticides contain one or more C-CF3 moieties and are potential sources of TFA in the environment.

    “Some pesticides also contain one or more C–CF3 moieties [254] and are potential sources of TFA in the environment [225].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [254] Ogawa, Y., Tokunaga, E., Kobayashi, O., Hirai, K., & Shibata, N. (2020). Current contributions of organofluorine compounds to the agrochemical industry. Iscience, 23, 101467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.101467 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [225] Neale, R. E., Barnes, P. W., Robson, T. M., Neale, P. J., Williamson, C. E., Zepp, R. G., Wilson, S. R., Madronich, S., Andrady, A. L., Heikkilä, A. M., Bernhard, G. H., Bais, A. F., Aucamp, P. J., Banaszak, A. T., Bornman, J. F., Bruckman, L. S., Byrne, S. N., Foereid, B., Häder, D. P., … Zhu, M. (2021). Environmental effects of stratospheric ozone depletion, UV radiation, and interactions with climate change: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, Update 2020. Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences, 20, 1–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43630-020-00001-x source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    TFA has a long environmental lifetime.

    “TFA is known to have a long environmental lifetime”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    TFA does not bioaccumulate nor is it toxic at the low to moderate exposures currently measured in the environment or those predicted in the distant future.

    “TFA does not bioaccumulate nor is it toxic at the low to moderate exposures currently measured in the environment or those predicted in the distant future.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The new R. subcapitata study was conducted under Good Laboratory Practice Guidelines with Quality Assurance and Quality Control, reviewed by ECHA, and classified as "reliable without restriction".

    “Although this new study on R. subcapitata has not been published in the literature, the study was conducted under Good Laboratory Practice Guidelines with Quality Assurance and Quality Control [262]. The detailed report of the study was reviewed by ECHA [263] and was classified as “reliable without restriction”, hence it has been used here in the characterization of the toxicity of TFA to aquatic”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [262] OECD. (2022). Good Laboratory Practice (GLP). https://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/testing/good-laboratory-practiceglp.htm. Accessed 1 Apr 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [263] ECHA. (2021). Trifluoroacetic acid: Toxicity to aquatic algae and cyanobacteria. https://echa.europa.eu/registration-dossier/-/registered-dossier/5203/6/2/6/?documentUUID=9e9959f8-a994-4b8c-93d7-de7a1a3c1cfa. Accessed 1 Dec 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because HCFCs and HFCs are long-lived in the atmosphere, they distribute globally and TFA from these substances is more evenly deposited.

    “Because the HCFCs and HFCs are long-lived in the atmosphere, they distribute globally and TFA from these substances is more evenly deposited.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Releases of TFA from HCFCs, HFCs, and HFOs will add to the existing load of TFA in the environment but predicted amounts are well below the threshold for concern with respect to human and environmental health.

    “These releases will add to the existing load of TFA in the environment but predicted amounts are well below the threshold for concern with respect to human and environmental health.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Even in the subclass of perfluorinated alkanoic acids, the physical, chemical, and biological properties of these substances differ widely, mostly in relation to length of the alkyl chain.

    “Even in the subclass of perfluorinated alkanoic acids, the physical, chemical, and biological properties of these substances differ widely, mostly in relation to length of the alkyl chain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Stabilized Criegee intermediates (SCI) react rapidly with PFCAs including TFA, producing hydroperoxyfluoroesters; this is likely the dominant gas-phase fate of PFCAs, although it only constitutes a temporary reservoir.

    “Stabilized Criegee intermediates (SCI), highly reactive chemicals formed in the atmosphere, react rapidly with PFCAs including TFA, producing hydroperoxyfluoroesters. This is likely the dominant gas-phase fate of PFCAs [281], although this only constitutes a temporary reservoir.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [281] Taatjes, C. A., Khan, M. A. H., Eskola, A. J., Percival, C. J., Osborn, D. L., Wallington, T. J., & Shallcross, D. E. (2019). Reaction of perfluorooctanoic acid with Criegee intermediates and implications for the atmospheric fate of perfluorocarboxylic acids. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(3), 1245–1251. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b05073 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In 2020 the measured mean abundances of HFO-1234ze and HCFO-1233zd(E) in central Europe at Jungfraujoch were 0.98 ng/m3 (0.21 pptv) and 1.01 ng/m3 (0.19 pptv), respectively, an increase from 0.18 ng/m3 (0.039 pptv) and 0.02 ng m−3 (0.003 pptv) in 2013 at this same measurement station.

    “In 2020 the measured mean abundances of HFO-1234ze and HCFO-1233zd(E) in central Europe at Jungfraujoch (remote, 3580 m above sea level) were 0.98 ng/m3 (0.21 pptv) and 1.01 ng/m3 (0.19 pptv), respectively. This is an increase from 0.18 ng/m3 (0.039 pptv) and 0.02 ng m−3 (0.003 pptv) in 2013 at this same measurement station.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [270] Lefrancois, F., Jesswein, M., Thoma, M., Engel, A., Stanley, K., & Schuck, T. (2021). An indirect-calibration method for non-target quantification of trace gases applied to a time series of fourth-generation synthetic halocarbons at the Taunus Observatory (Germany). Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 14(6), 4669–4687. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-4669-2021 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [271] Vollmer, M. K., Reimann, S., Hill, M., & Brunner, D. (2015). First observations of the fourth generation synthetic halocarbons HFC-1234yf, HFC-1234ze(E), and HCFC-1233zd(E) in the atmosphere. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(5), 2703–2708. https://doi.org/10.1021/es505123x source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [272] Vollmer, M. K., Reimann, S., Hill, M., & Brunner, D. (2020). Update to Vollmer, M. K., S. Reimann, M. Hill, D. Brunner, First observations of the fourth generation synthetic halocarbons HFC-1234yf, HFC-1234ze(E), and HCFC-1233zd(E) in the atmosphere. Environ Sci Technol, 49, 2703–2708, https://doi.org/10.1021/es505123x. https://www.empa.ch/documents/56101/190047/HFO+update+Report/fe3b26b5-fcb6-4cd9-a6f6-5c39ac01f20a. Accessed 2 July 2022 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    TFA is formed from combustion of fluoropolymers and as a terminal breakdown product of fluorinated pharmaceuticals and pesticides.

    “It is formed from combustion of fluoropolymers and as a terminal breakdown product of fluorinated pharmaceuticals and pesticides.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The SCI-mediated oxidation products were found to have no significant impact on concentrations or distributions of TFA in the atmosphere, and this is not a pathway for net destruction of TFA in the environment.

    “In effect, the SCI-mediated oxidation products were found to have no significant impact on concentrations or distributions of TFA in the atmosphere [216] and this is not a pathway for net destruction of TFA in the environment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [216] Holland, R., Khan, M. A. H., Driscoll, I., Chhantyal-Pun, R., Derwent, R. G., Taatjes, C. A., Orr-Ewing, A. J., Percival, C. J., & Shallcross, D. E. (2021). Investigation of the production of trifluoroacetic acid from two halocarbons, HFC-134a and HFO-1234yf and its fates using a global three-dimensional chemical transport model. ACS Earth and Space Chemistry, 5, 849–857. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.0c00355 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The Montreal Protocol has prevented large increases in UV-B radiation.

    “The Montreal Protocol has prevented large increases in UV-B radiation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Amounts of TFA released from degradation of pharmaceuticals are very uncertain and amounts from fugitive releases from manufacturing are completely unknown.

    “Amounts released from degradation of pharmaceuticals are very uncertain and amounts from fugitive releases from manufacturing are completely unknown.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The margin of exposure between the distribution of NOECs and the observed and expected concentrations in the oceans and endorheic basins is several orders of magnitude and is indicative of de minimis risk.

    “The margin of exposure between the distribution of NOECs and the observed and expected concentrations in the oceans and endorheic basins is several orders of magnitude and is indicative of de minimis risk.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Pharmaceuticals that contain the C-CF3 moiety are expected to be a source of TFA in the environment, but the yield of TFA from breakdown and the amounts used are unknown.

    “Those pharmaceuticals that contain the C–CF3 moiety are expected to be a source of TFA in the environment but there are two unknowns, the yield of TFA from the breakdown of the pharmaceutical and the amounts of pharmaceuticals that are used.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TFA enhances the formation rate of new dimethylamine/sulfuric particles significantly (up to 227-fold), but only under conditions of relatively low temperatures and sulfuric acid concentrations, and relatively high TFA and dimethylamine concentration.

    “TFA enhances the formation rate of new dimethylamine/sulfuric particles significantly (up to 227-fold [278]), but only under conditions of relatively low temperatures and sulfuric acid concentrations, and relatively high TFA and dimethylamine concentration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [278] Liu, L., Yu, F., Tu, K., Yang, Z., & Zhang, X. (2021). Influence of atmospheric conditions on the role of trifluoroacetic acid in atmospheric sulfuric acid–dimethylamine nucleation. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 21(8), 6221–6230. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-6221-2021 source

      Not checked in the free run.

200 of 200

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Secondary aerosols are generated by UV-driven photochemistry.

    “This is of direct relevance to the Montreal Protocol, since secondary aerosols are generated by UV-driven photochemistry.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The hydroxyl radical is the major oxidant in the troposphere and its concentration largely determines the lifetime of many tropospheric pollutants.

    “The hydroxyl radical (OH) is the major oxidant in the troposphere and its concentration largely determines the lifetime of many tropospheric pollutants.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    OH is produced via UV-B photolysis of O3.

    “It is produced via UV-B photolysis of O3 (see Fig. 1).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    TFA is evenly distributed across all oceans when estimating 2100 ocean concentrations.

    “if evenly distributed across all oceans”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The proportions of TFA from other refrigerants in Germany can be applied to the global estimate of deposition.

    “If the proportions of TFA from other refrigerants in Germany are applied to the global estimate of deposition”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The ten-fold range used to estimate total oceanic TFA from measured concentrations is appropriate.

    “using an estimated ten-fold range”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The total known use and release of HFC-134a, HFC-143a, and HFC-227ea between 1990 and 2015 is complete for calculating the theoretical maximum TFA production.

    “From the total known use and release of HFC-134a, HFC-143a, and HFC-227ea between 1990 and 2015, the total amount of TFA that could theoretically have been produced is 4.5 × 106 tons.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The degradation half-life of TFA in the environment is very long (approximately centuries).

    “If, as seems to be the case, the half-life is likely very long (≈ centuries)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Increases in the activity of enzymes in or originating from the liver are considered as compensatory unless accompanied by physiological responses such as loss of weight.

    “Increases in the activity of enzymes in or originating from the liver are considered as compensatory unless accompanied by physiological responses such as loss of weight.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    HFOs have very short atmospheric lifespans and do not contribute to climate change.

    “Because of this, there is a trend to replace long-lived HCFCs and HFCs with HFOs, which have very short atmospheric lifespans and do not contribute to climate change.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Fugitive releases have resulted in high levels of contamination near manufacturing facilities and TFA is routinely detected in surface waters.

    “Fugitive releases have resulted in high levels of contamination near manufacturing facilities and TFA is routinely detected in surface waters.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The actual yield of TFA from pesticides is dependent on other substituents on the molecule and the primary driver(s) of degradation, so the calculated yields based on molecular weight ratios are conservative.

    “This is a conservative assumption as the actual yield of TFA is dependent on other substituents on the molecule and the primary driver(s) of degradation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Poor air quality remains a major health problem globally, despite progress in reducing anthropogenic emissions of air pollutants.

    “Poor air quality remains a major health problem globally, despite progress in reducing anthropogenic emissions of air pollutants.”
13 of 13

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • NO2 odds ratio lies outside its stated confidence interval

    Minor

    The stated confidence interval has a lower bound greater than its upper bound, and both bounds exceed the reported odds ratio of 1.019.

  • Combined ozone and particulate effects are described as additive despite smaller reported loss

    Minor

    The reported wheat yield loss with both pollutants (34%) is smaller than the loss with either PM alone (44%) or O3 alone (52%), contradicting the statement that their effects act additively.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 14

  1. WHO. (2021). WHO global air quality guidelines: Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Geneva: World Health Organization
  2. WHO. (2017). Evolution of WHO air quality guidelines: Past, present and future (2017). World Health Organization
  3. WHO. (2006). Air Quality guidelines: global update 2005: Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide (Vol. EUR/05/5046029). World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe
  4. DEPA. (2015). Short-chain polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) (Vol. 1707). Danish Environmental Protection Agency
  5. NICNAS. (2016). Short chain perfluorocarboxylic acids and their direct precursors: human health tier II assessment. National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS)
  6. ECCC. (2022). Canada’s great lakes strategy for PFOS, PFOA, and LC-PFCAs risk management. Environment and Climate Change Canada
  7. PubChem. (2022). Trifluoroacetic acid. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/6422. Accessed 1 Jan 2022
  8. Chabot, L. (2017). ALGA, GROWTH INHIBITION TEST Effect of the trifuoroacetic acid on the growth of the unicellular alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, according to OECD guideline 201 (Study conducted for RHODIA OPERATIONS – SOLVAY). Vol. 17-005-167094. Verneuil-En-Halatte
  9. IPCC. (2021). Climate change 2021: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press
  10. UBA. (2021). Persistent degradation products of halogenated refrigerants and blowing agents in the environment: Type, environmental concentrations, and fate with particular regard to new halogenated substitutes with low global warming potential (Vol. FB000452/ENG). Umwelt Bundesamt
  11. UBA. (2021). Reducing Chemical Input into Water Bodies – Trifluoroacetate (TFA) as a Persistent and Mobile Substance from Many Sources. Umweld Bundesampt German Environment Agency. ISSN 2363-829X
  12. UBA. (2019). Ableitung Eines Gesundheitlichen Leitwertes für Trifluoressigsäure (TFA). Umwelt Bundesampt
  13. IPCC/TEAP. (2005). Special report safeguarding the ozone layer and the global climate system: Issues related to hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) ; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; United Nations Environment Programme
  14. Vollmer, M. K., Reimann, S., Hill, M., & Brunner, D. (2020). Update to Vollmer, M. K., S. Reimann, M. Hill, D. Brunner, First observations of the fourth generation synthetic halocarbons HFC-1234yf, HFC-1234ze(E), and HCFC-1233zd(E) in the atmosphere. Environ Sci Technol, 49, 2703–2708, https://doi.org/10.1021/es505123x. https://www.empa.ch/documents/56101/190047/HFO+update+Report/fe3b26b5-fcb6-4cd9-a6f6-5c39ac01f20a. Accessed 2 July 2022 · DOI · Paper page

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Authors
Madronich, S., Sulzberger, B., Longstreth, J. D., Schikowski, T., Andersen, M. P. S., Solomon, K. R., & Wilson, S. R.
Affiliations
  • NSF National Center for Atmospheric Research (US)
  • Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (CH)
  • Leibniz Institute of Environmental Medicine (DE)
  • California State University, Northridge (US)
  • University of Guelph (CA)
  • University of Wollongong (AU)
Corresponding author
  • Madronich, S.
  • Wilson, S. R.
ORCID
Venue
Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2023-06-13
Volume
22
Issue
5
Pages
1129-1176
ISSN
  • 1474-905X (ISSN-L)
  • 1474-9092
DOI
10.1007/s43630-023-00369-6
PMC
PMC10262938
OpenAlex
W4380422192
Semantic Scholar
665b7bfcabc45131fd17451ac3d52a81ca0be6f8
Cited by
64
References
257
Citations by year
2026: 14 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 7
FWCI
7.05
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DORA Eawag (Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag)) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Research Online (University of Wollongong) (submittedVersion)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • U.S. Department of Agriculture
  • Colorado State University
  • National Institute of Food and Agriculture (2019‐34263‐30552:, 2022‐34263‐38472)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Atmospheric Ozone and Climate
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Atmospheric chemistry and aerosols
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Atmospheric aerosols and clouds
Keywords
tropospheric ozone, particulate matter, stratospheric ozone recovery, Montreal Protocol, ultraviolet radiation, hydroxyl radicals, methane, ozone-depleting substances, hydrofluorocarbons, hydrofluoroolefins, trifluoroacetic acid, climate change, air quality, secondary organic aerosol, ozone transport

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.

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