Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in precipitation from mainland China: Contributions of unknown precursors and short-chain (C2 C3) perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids
Abstract
A nationwide survey was conducted on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in precipitation across mainland China. Twenty-two PFASs, including precursors to perfluoroalkyl acids (pre-PFAAs), were investigated in thirty-nine precipitation samples collected from twenty-eight cities. Trifluoroacetate (TFA), perfluorooctanoic acid, and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) were ubiquitous in precipitation. TFA displayed the highest concentrations (8.8-1.8 × 103 ng/L), which were particularly elevated in coastal cities. 6:2 chlorinated polyfluorinated ether sulfonic acid, an alternative to PFOS, was detected for the first time in precipitation at a frequency of 43%. Polyfluoroalkyl phosphoric acid diesters and 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonic acid were also occasionally detected. PFAS fluxes in the northeastern area (C4C12; 2.0 × 102-3.4 × 103 ng/m2/d) with major PFAS manufacturing facilities were higher than those in the southwestern area (63-1.7 × 103 ng/m2/d). Using total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay, the occurrence of unknown pre-PFAAs was for the first time uncovered in precipitation with maximum estimated fluxes of C6 and C8 pre-PFAAs at 3.1 × 103 and 4.3 × 103 ng/m2/d, respectively. The relative contribution of ultrashort-chain PFCAs (C2C3) ranged from 22% to 91% of ∑PFASs, while unknown pre-PFAAs accounted for 6%-56% of the total molar concentrations of PFASs. This bears critical concerns on underestimation of PFAS mass load from precipitation to surface environment ascribed to monitoring data solely on known PFASs. Unknown precursors of PFAAs in the atmosphere are yet to be identified for their chemical structures and relevant environmental risks as well.
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Wet deposition is a major pathway for PFASs to enter the soil, observed globally including in North America and Asia.
“This process has been observed globally, including in North America and Asia, making wet deposition a major pathway for PFASs to enter the soil [149,150].”
From Industrial Applications, Environmental Fate, Human Exposure, and Health Effects of PFAS (2025) · cites this paper as [149]
Analysis of rainwater samples collected in 2016 in 28 cities across China showed detectable amounts of TFA in all samples.
“Analysis of rainwater samples collected in 2016 in 28 cities across China showed detectable amounts of TFA in all samples [219].”
From Changes in tropospheric air quality related to the protection of stratospheric ozone in a changing climate (2023) · cites this paper as [219]
In China rainwater, TFA concentrations ranged from 9.1 to 320 ng TFA a.e. L−1 and fluxes from 160 to 16,000 ng TFA a.e. m−2 day−1.
“Concentrations ranged from a low of 9.1 to a high of 320 ng TFA a.e. L−1 and fluxes from 160 to 16,000 ng TFA a.e. m−2 day−1 (Tables SI-7 and SI-8 in [219]).”
From Changes in tropospheric air quality related to the protection of stratospheric ozone in a changing climate (2023) · cites this paper as [219]
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“This process has been observed globally, including in North America and Asia, making wet deposition a major pathway for PFASs to enter the soil [149,150].”
- Authors
- Chen, H., Zhang, L., Li, M., Yao, Y., Zhao, Z., Munoz, G., & Sun, H.
- Affiliations
- Nankai University (CN)
- Université de Montréal (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Yao, Yiming
- Sun, Hongwen
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-04
- Volume
- 153
- Pages
- 169-177
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2912812589
- Semantic Scholar
- c3e3d37bd020086e96e3fd1820355eb08b6301c4
- Cited by
- 186
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 8.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China (T2017002)
- Higher Education Discipline Innovation Project
- National Natural Science Foundation of China (41573097, 41603101, 41807356)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmaceutical Science › Fluorine in Organic Chemistry
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Polymers and Plastics › Synthesis and properties of polymers
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, precipitation, trifluoroacetate, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, atmospheric transport
- MeSH terms
- Carboxylic Acids, China, Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Water Pollutants, Chemical
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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