Cited by 1,153Gut microbiota and healthProbiotics and Fermented FoodsInfant Nutrition and Health

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The indigenous gastrointestinal microflora

Berg, R·1996·Trends in Microbiology

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Abstract

The indigenous gastrointestinal (GI) tract microflora has profound effects on the anatomical, physiological and immunological development of the host. The indigenous microflora stimulates the host immune system to respond more quickly to pathogen challenge and, through bacterial antagonism, inhibits colonization of the GI tract by overt exogenous pathogens. Indigenous GI bacteria are also opportunistic pathogens and can translocate across the mucosal barrier to cause systemic infection in debilitated hosts.

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Crossref · 10.1016/0966-842x(96)10057-3

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Probiotic capability in yeasts: Set-up of a screening method
Arévalo‐Villena, M., Fernández‐Pacheco, P., Castillo, N., Bevilacqua, A., & Pérez, A. I. B. (2017) · LWT · doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2017.11.047 · Cited by 43
“The kind of protocol (1, 2, and 3) and the yeasts (2, 3, 4, 24, 1001, 1121, 1567) were used as categorical predictors, whereas the fitting parameters of the equation of Warringer & Blomberg (2003) (λ, G, ODmax), and the specific growth rate (μmax) were set as dependent variables.”
BackgroundMethod
Protective role of lactobacilli in Shigella dysenteriae 1–induced diarrhea in rats
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“It is more and more recognized that this resident microflora plays an important role in inhibiting gut colonization by the incoming pathogens [13,14].”
Gut Microbial Changes and their Contribution to Post-Burn Pathology
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“The GI or gut microbiota is the largest reservoir of bacterial species in the human body, with upwards of 10(12) bacteria per gram of luminal contents(101, 102).”
Background
Psychological Stress, Immunity, and the Effects on Indigenous Microflora
Bailey, M. T. (2016) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20215-0_11 · Cited by 41
“The human body harbors an enormous microflora that even in the healthy host grossly outnumbers cells of the body by a factor of 10 (i.e., approximately 10 14 bacterial cells:10 13 human cells) ( Berg 1996, 1999 ).”
Background
A study of the effect of dietary fiber fractions obtained from artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus) on the growth of intestinal bacteria associated with health
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Effects of direct-fed microbial supplementation on digestibility and fermentation end-products in horses fed low- and high-starch concentrates1
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“Some species thrive at the mucosal surface, while others are more stable in the crypts (Ward et al., 1990; Conway et al., 1995; Berg, 1996; Dunne, 2001).”
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The influence of endotoxemia on the molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance.
Moreira, A. P. B., & Alfenas, R. D. C. G. (2012) · PubMed · doi:10.1590/s0212-16112012000200007 · Cited by 45
Gut γδ T cells as guardians, disruptors, and instigators of cancer
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“76 Therefore, it is easily presumed that immunity in the SI and colon is suitably distinct.”
The Gut Microbiota-Related Antihyperglycemic Effect of Metformin
Szymczak-Pajor, I., Drzewoski, J., Kozłowska, M., Krekora, J., & Śliwińska, A. (2025) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph18010055 · Cited by 43
“In turn, the small intestine is settled by approximately 10 3 –10 9 cells/mL of microorganisms [37].”
Antibody Repertoire Development in Fetal and Neonatal Piglets. IX. Three Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns Act Synergistically to Allow Germfree Piglets to Respond to Type 2 Thymus-Independent and Thymus-Dependent Antigens
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Bacterial communities in the small intestine respond differently to those in the caecum and colon in mice fed low- and high-fat diets
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“The bacterial content in the human intestine ranges from approximately 10(8) bacteria per gram dry weight in the ileal portion of the small intestine to more than 10 bacteria per gram of faeces [3, 4].”
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CD14: A Soluble Pattern Recognition Receptor in Milk
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16S rRNA gene sequences of ‘Candidatus Campylobacter hominis’, a novel uncultivated species, are found in the gastrointestinal tract of healthy humans
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The effect of lactating rabbit does on the development of the caecal microbial community in the pups they nurture
Abecia, L., Fondevila, M., Balcells, J., & McEwan, N. R. (2007) · Journal of Applied Microbiology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03277.x · Cited by 41
“The microbial community of the gastrointestinal tract is characterized by its high concentration, wide diversity and complexity of interactions, having a profound influence on immunological, nutritional, physiological and protective processes in the host animal (Berg 1996; Gaskins 1997).”
Background
Regulation of intestinal ontogeny: effect of glucocorticoids and luminal microbes on galactosyltransferase and trehalase induction in mice
Nanthakumar, N. N. (2004) · Glycobiology · doi:10.1093/glycob/cwi004 · Cited by 41
“This complex and dynamic society of commensal (and symbiotic) microflora forms a stable niche by adhering to the surface of the gut lumen (Berg, 1996; Falk et al., 1998; Hooper et al., 1998; Karlsson, 1995).”
Background
Antibiotics for Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Rationale and Current Evidence
Sachdev, A. H., & Pimentel, M. (2012) · Current Gastroenterology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11894-012-0284-2 · Cited by 40
Regulation of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol by intestinal inflammation and the acute phase response
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“Although enterocytes of the small intestine express a wide array of TLRs, NOD-like receptors (NLRs) and inflammasome components,(85) these pathways are not robustly activated in health since the bacterial content of the upper small intestine is very limited (10–10(4) CFU/g).(86) Indeed, almost all of the commensal mic…”
Background
An Introduction to Whole-Metagenome Shotgun Sequencing Studies
Joseph, T., & Pe’er, I. (2021) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-1103-6_6 · Cited by 43
Effect of Lactobacillus fermentum on Beta2 Toxin Production by Clostridium perfringens
Allaart, J. G., van Asten, A. J. A. M., Vernooij, J. C. M., & Gröne, A. (2011) · Applied and Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1128/aem.03002-10 · Cited by 40
“Although differing in composition, the resident intestinal flora of both animals and humans contributes to the well-being of the host (2, 10).”
Background
Comparison of Bacterial Diversity in Wheat Bran and in the Gut of Larvae and Newly Emerged Adult of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) by Use of Ethidium Monoazide Reveals Bacterial Colonization
Su, Z., Zhang, M., Liu, X., Tong, L., Huang, Y., Li, G., & Pang, Y. (2010) · Journal of Economic Entomology · doi:10.1603/ec10142 · Cited by 41
“The standard of whether colonization occurs was assessed by determining whether the bacteria multiply in a particular niche in the gut at a rate that equals or exceeds their rate of elimination from the gut (Berg 1996, Dillon and Dillon 2004).”
Background
High‐throughput methods for analysis of the human oral microbiome
Pozhitkov, A. E., Beikler, T., Flemmig, T., & Noble, P. A. (2010) · Periodontology 2000 · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0757.2010.00380.x · Cited by 44
Improving the Stress Tolerance of Probiotic Cultures: Recent Trends and Future Directions
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“The colon is the primary site of microbial colonization in humans and animals, and the majority of the indigenous gut microbes are obligate anaerobes (Berg 1996).”
Background
Inflammasome-Microbiota Interplay in Host Physiologies
Ayres, J. S. (2013) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2013.10.013 · Cited by 40
Review: Tools for the tract: understanding the functionality of the gastrointestinal tract
Kovatcheva‐Datchary, P., Zoetendal, E. G., Venema, K., de Vos, W. M., & Smidt, H. (2009) · Therapeutic Advances in Gastroenterology · doi:10.1177/1756283x09337646 · Cited by 39
“The human body typically harbors 10 times more microbial cells than human cells, which is mainly due to the extremely high density of microorganisms found to be present in the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract [Backhed et al. 2005; Berg, 1996; Savage, 1977].”
Background
Characterizing forensically important insect and microbial community colonization patterns in buried remains
Iancu, L., Junkins, E. N., Necula-Petrăreanu, G., & Purcărea, C. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-33794-0 · Cited by 39
A comparison of nonlethal sampling methods for amphibian gut microbiome analyses
Zhou, J., Nelson, T. M., Lopez, C. M. R., Sarma, R. R., Zhou, S. J., & Rollins, L. A. (2020) · Molecular Ecology Resources · doi:10.1111/1755-0998.13139 · Cited by 39
“This could be due to slower intestinal motility and longer transit time in the large intestine which increases the probability of microbial colonization (Berg, 1996; Hillman, Lu, Yao, & Nakatsu, 2017).”
Background
Interactions of Intestinal Epithelial Cells With Bacteria and Immune Cells: Methods to Characterize Microflora and Functional Consequences
Canny, G., Swidsinski, A. V., & McCormick, B. A. (2006) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1385/1-59745-113-4:17 · Cited by 39
“The human intestine is colonized by a huge number of bacteria, with approx 1012 bacteria contained in a gram of colonic content, for example (1).”
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An Abundance of Escherichia coli Is Harbored by the Mucosa- Associated Bacterial Flora of Interleukin-2-Deficient Mice
Schuppler, M., Lötzsch, K., Waidmann, M., & Autenrieth, I. B. (2004) · Infection and Immunity · doi:10.1128/iai.72.4.1983-1990.2004 · Cited by 39
“Due to the limitations of culture-based techniques, most members of the intestinal microbiota are still unknown (5).”
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Stabilin Receptors Clear LPS and Control Systemic Inflammation
Cabral, F., Al-Rahem, M., Skaggs, J., Thomas, T. A., Kumar, N., Wu, Q., Fadda, P., Yu, L., Robinson, J. M., Kim, J., et al. (2021) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2021.103337 · Cited by 38
“The major source for circulating LPS molecules is the gut microbiome (Berg, 1996; Erridge et al., 2007).”
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Gender-specific bacterial composition of black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae)
Tang, X., Adler, P. H., Vogel, H., & Ping, L. (2012) · FEMS Microbiology Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2012.01335.x · Cited by 38
“, 2007), colonizing any tissue with accessible surfaces (Berg, 1996).”
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Probiotics and Atopic Dermatitis in Children
Meneghin, F., Fabiano, V., Mameli, C., & Zuccotti, G. (2012) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph5070727 · Cited by 39
“development of atopic diseases [12,13].”
Postprandial endotoxemia may influence the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus: From the CORDIOPREV study
Camargo, A., Jiménez-Lucena, R., Alcala-Diaz, J. F., Rangel-Zúñiga, O. A., García‐Carpintero, S., López-Moreno, J., Blanco-Rojo, R., Delgado‐Lista, J., Pérez‐Martínez, P., van Ommen, B., et al. (2018) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.03.016 · Cited by 38
Current evidence on the use of probiotics in liver diseases
Chávez-Tapia, N. C., González-Rodríguez, L., Jeong, M., López-Ramírez, Y., Barbero-Becerra, V. J., Juárez-Hernández, E., Romero-Flores, J. L., Arrese, M. A., Méndez‐Sánchez, N., & Uribe, M. (2015) · Journal of Functional Foods · doi:10.1016/j.jff.2015.05.009 · Cited by 38
A Randomised Controlled Trial of a Probiotic Lactobacillus Strain in Healthy Adults: Assessment of its Delivery, Transit and Influence on Microbial Flora and Enteric Immunity
Collins, J. K., Dunne, C. P., Murphy, L., Morrissey, D., O’Mahony, L., O’Sullivan, E., Fitzgerald, G. F., Kiely, B., O’Sullivan, G. C., Daly, C., et al. (2002) · Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease · doi:10.1080/08910600260081720 · Cited by 38
Salicylic acids and pathogenic bacteria: new perspectives on an old compound
Sykes, E. M. E., White, D., McLaughlin, S., & Kumar, A. (2023) · Canadian Journal of Microbiology · doi:10.1139/cjm-2023-0123 · Cited by 37
Activities of free and encapsulated Lactobacillus acidophilus LA5 or Lactobacillus casei 01 in processed longan juices on exposure to simulated gastrointestinal tract
Chaikham, P., Apichartsrangkoon, A., Worametrachanon, S., Supraditareporn, W., Chokiatirote, E., & de Wiele, T. V. (2012) · Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture · doi:10.1002/jsfa.6030 · Cited by 37

Authors: Berg, R.
Affiliations: Louisiana State University (US)
Corresponding author: Berg, R
Venue: Trends in Microbiology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1996-11
Volume: 4
Issue: 11
Pages: 430-435
ISSN: 0966-842X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/0966-842x(96)10057-3
OpenAlex: W2087484128
Cited by: 1,153
References: 17
Citations by year: 2026: 12 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 59 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 54
FWCI: 3.03
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Trends in Microbiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Infant Nutrition and Health
Keywords: gastrointestinal tract, host-pathogen interaction, bacterial antagonism, colonization resistance, opportunistic pathogens, mucosal barrier, systemic infection, host-microbe interactions
MeSH terms: Animals, Digestive System, Ecology, Humans, Mouth, Bacterial Physiological Phenomena

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