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The indigenous gastrointestinal microflora
Abstract
The indigenous gastrointestinal (GI) tract microflora has profound effects on the anatomical, physiological and immunological development of the host. The indigenous microflora stimulates the host immune system to respond more quickly to pathogen challenge and, through bacterial antagonism, inhibits colonization of the GI tract by overt exogenous pathogens. Indigenous GI bacteria are also opportunistic pathogens and can translocate across the mucosal barrier to cause systemic infection in debilitated hosts.
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“Saliva contains 109 bacteria per milliliter, with the bacteria present in saliva being shed from the tongue, cheeks, and dental and gingival plaque.197”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [197]
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Manipulation of the Quorum Sensing Signal AI-2 Affects the Antibiotic-Treated Gut Microbiota
Thompson, J. A., Oliveira, R. A., Djuković, A., Úbeda, C., & Xavier, K. B. (2015) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2015.02.049 · Cited by 396
“Interactions between commensal species and the host fulfill immensely important physiological roles, promoting the development of the intestinal tract, maturation of the immune system, and immunological tolerance to antigens (Berg, 1996; Hooper et al., 2012; RakoffNahoum et al., 2004).”
BackgroundKHALIF, I., QUIGLEY, E., KONOVITCH, E., & MAXIMOVA, I. (2005) · Digestive and Liver Disease · doi:10.1016/j.dld.2005.06.008 · Cited by 382
Toll-Like Receptor 4 Signaling by Intestinal Microbes Influences Susceptibility to Food Allergy
Bashir, M. E. H., Louie, S., Shi, H. N., & Nagler‐Anderson, C. (2004) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.172.11.6978 · Cited by 392
“By mechanisms only poorly understood, antigenic stimulation of the GALT by the noninvasive commensal flora has a profound impact on lymphocyte responsiveness and on the generation of Th1-biased memory effector cells (2, 3).”
Background“Blooming” in the gut: how dysbiosis might contribute to pathogen evolution.
Stecher, B., Maier, L., & Hardt, W.-D. (2013) · Nature Reviews Microbiology · doi:10.1038/nrmicro2989 · Cited by 378
Gut-derived low-grade endotoxaemia, atherothrombosis and cardiovascular disease
Violi, F., Cammisotto, V., Bartimoccia, S., Pignatelli, P., Carnevale, R., & Nocella, C. (2022) · Nature Reviews Cardiology · doi:10.1038/s41569-022-00737-2 · Cited by 400
Common strategies for antigenic variation by bacterial, fungal and protozoan pathogens
Deitsch, K., Lukehart, S. A., & Stringer, J. R. (2009) · Nature Reviews Microbiology · doi:10.1038/nrmicro2145 · Cited by 377
“It has been estimated that the average human contains tenfold more bacterial cells than human cell”
BackgroundEarly childhood infection and atopic disorder
Farooqi, I. S., & Hopkin, J. M. (1998) · Thorax · doi:10.1136/thx.53.11.927 · Cited by 377
“suggests one plausible mechanism of action which links with experimental data. The microflora of the gut play a crucial role in the programming and development of systemic immunity in early life”
BackgroundRoos, S., & Jonsson, H. (2002) · Microbiology · doi:10.1099/00221287-148-2-433 · Cited by 388
“For bacteria to be able to colonize this open flow environment, adhesion to the mucosa is considered to be a prerequisite (Berg, 1996; Brassart & Schiffrin, 1997).”
Inflammatory bowel disease: Immunodiagnostics, immunotherapeutics, and ecotherapeutics
Shanahan, F. (2001) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1053/gast.2001.22122 · Cited by 373
A metagenomic insight into our gut's microbiome
Lepage, P., Leclerc, M., Joossens, M., Mondot, S., Blottière, H. M., Raes, J., Ehrlich, S. D., & Dore, J. M. (2012) · Gut · doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2011-301805 · Cited by 371
Probiotics: a role in the treatment of intestinal infection and inflammation?
Isolauri, E., Kirjavainen, P. V., & Salminen, S. (2002) · Gut · doi:10.1136/gut.50.suppl_3.iii54 · Cited by 369
Highly Variable Mutation Rates in Commensal and Pathogenic Escherichia coli
Matić, I., Radman, M., Taddéi, F., Picard, B., Doit, C., Bingen, É., Denamur, É., & Élion, J. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.277.5333.1833 · Cited by 368
Gut microbiota: a new path to treat obesity
Muscogiuri, G., Cantone, E., Cassarano, S., Tuccinardi, D., Barrea, L., Savastano, S., & Colao, A. (2019) · International Journal of Obesity Supplements · doi:10.1038/s41367-019-0011-7 · Cited by 370
The challenges of modeling mammalian biocomplexity
Nicholson, J. K., Holmes, E. C., Lindon, J. C., & Wilson, I. D. (2004) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/nbt1015 · Cited by 357
“These microorganisms, weighing up to 1 kg in a normal adult human, may total ∼100 trillion cell”
BackgroundThe intestinal microbiome of the pig
Isaacson, R. E., & Kim, H. B. (2012) · Animal Health Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s1466252312000084 · Cited by 370
“It has been suggested that the normal microbiota play important roles in excluding pathogens either by occupying space or by directly interfering with specific pathogens (Berg, 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialHeimesaat, M. M., Bereswill, S., Fischer, A., Fuchs, D., Struck, D., Niebergall, J., Jahn, H.-K., Dunay, I. R., Moter, A., Gescher, D. M., et al. (2006) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.177.12.8785 · Cited by 345
“However, due to the complexity of the gastrointestinal ecosystem (49) and limitations of culturebased techniques (50), valid data are scarce.”
BackgroundSystemic multicompartmental effects of the gut microbiome on mouse metabolic phenotypes
Claus, S. P., Tsang, T. M., Wang, Y., Cloarec, O., Skordi, E., Martin, F., Rezzi, S., Ross, A., Kochhar, S., Holmes, E., et al. (2008) · Molecular Systems Biology · doi:10.1038/msb.2008.56 · Cited by 334
“GF mice display unusual gut morphology, i.e. larger cecum, thinner intestinal villi, when compared with conventional animals as well as physiological and immunological abnormalities, i.e. lower peristalsis, decreased inflammatory responses (Berg, 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialRole of Toll-like Receptors in Spontaneous Commensal-Dependent Colitis
Rakoff-Nahoum, S., Hao, L., & Medzhitov, R. M. (2006) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2006.06.010 · Cited by 354
“Microbial colonization of the intestine confers both local and systemic benefits spanning diverse processes such as host defense from infection, energy and nutrient metabolism, and tissue development and repair (Berg, 1996; Hooper and Gordon, 2001).”
BackgroundRebuilding the Gut Microbiota Ecosystem
Gagliardi, A., Totino, V., Cacciotti, F., Iebba, V., Neroni, B., Bonfiglio, G., Trancassini, M., Passariello, C., Pantanella, F., & Schippa, S. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15081679 · Cited by 340
“Notably, only a minority of known Lactobacillus species are found to be residents of the human intestinal tract [75], and a large majority of them are allochthone members derived from fermented food [70,74,75].”
BackgroundLongitudinal investigation of the age-related bacterial diversity in the feces of commercial pigs
Kim, H. B., Borewicz, K., White, B. A., Singer, R. S., Sreevatsan, S., Tu, Z. J., & Isaacson, R. E. (2011) · Veterinary Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.05.021 · Cited by 353
Getting better with bifidobacteria
Leahy, S. C., Higgins, D. G., Fitzgerald, G. F., & van Sinderen, D. (2005) · Journal of Applied Microbiology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02600.x · Cited by 338
“The human gastrointestinal tract harbours a complex collection of micro-organisms throughout its length, although it is the colon, which represents the main site of microbial colonization, providing residence for more than 500 different species of bacteria (Berg 1996).”
BackgroundMucosal Ecological Network of Epithelium and Immune Cells for Gut Homeostasis and Tissue Healing
Kurashima, Y., & Kiyono, H. (2017) · Annual Review of Immunology · doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-051116-052424 · Cited by 336
The gut microbiome: an orchestrator of xenobiotic metabolism
Collins, S. L., & Patterson, A. D. (2020) · Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B · doi:10.1016/j.apsb.2019.12.001 · Cited by 348
Interactions Between Commensal Bacteria and Gut Sensorimotor Function in Health and Disease
Barbara, G., Stanghellini, V., Brandi, G., Cremon, C., Nardo, G. D., De Giorgio, R., & Corinaldesi, R. (2005) · The American Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.00230.x · Cited by 325
“The mechanisms that control microflora growth are numerous and include gastric secretion, immune mechanisms, epithelial mucus production, dietary factors, and bacterial competitive inhibition (4, 5, 56).”
BackgroundXiao, H. Q., Gulen, M. F., Qin, J., Yao, J., Bulek, K., Kish, D. D., Altuntas, C. Z., Wald, D. N., Ma, C., Zhou, H., et al. (2007) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2007.02.012 · Cited by 331
“Up to 100 trillion commensal bacteria, which are highly diverse in strains, are present in the colon, providing the host with important functions including the metabolism of nutrients and organic substrates (Sansonetti, 2004; Hooper and Gordon, 2001; Hooper et al., 2001; Berg, 1996).”
BackgroundDrosophila lifespan enhancement by exogenous bacteria
Brummel, T., Ching, A., Seroude, L., Simon, A. F., & Benzer, S. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0405207101 · Cited by 320
DNA from probiotic bacteria modulates murine and human epithelial and immune function
Jijon, H. B., Backer, J., Díaz, H., Yeung, H. P., Thiel, D., McKaigney, C. J., Simone, C. D., & Madsen, K. L. (2004) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2004.02.003 · Cited by 318
Metadata
- Authors
- Berg, R.
- Affiliations
- Louisiana State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Berg, R
- Venue
- Trends in Microbiology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1996-11
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 430-435
- ISSN
- 0966-842X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2087484128
- Cited by
- 1,153
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 59 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 54
- FWCI
- 3.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Trends in Microbiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Infant Nutrition and Health
- Keywords
- gastrointestinal tract, host-pathogen interaction, bacterial antagonism, colonization resistance, opportunistic pathogens, mucosal barrier, systemic infection, host-microbe interactions
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Digestive System, Ecology, Humans, Mouth, Bacterial Physiological Phenomena
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