Age differences in executive functioning across the lifespan: The role of verbalization in task preparation
Open accessAbstract
Age-related changes in executive functioning across the lifespan were assessed in children (mean age=9.4 years), younger adults (mean age=21.5 years), and older adults (mean age=65.3 years). Executive functioning was investigated with a task-switching paradigm that permits the separation of two control components: to select and to switch between task sets. The specific aims of this study were (a) to determine developmental functions in both control components across the lifespan; and (b) to examine whether age-related changes in these components are influenced by verbal prompts during task preparation. The results revealed an inverted u-shaped developmental function for the ability to select between task sets but not for the ability to switch between task sets. In contrast to younger adults and children, older adults generally benefited from verbalizations during task preparation. Children, but not older adults, showed a facilitation of task execution when verbal prompts were task-compatible. Conversely, older adults, but not children, showed stronger interference when verbal prompts are task-incompatible. Our findings suggest that inner speech in an important modulator of developmental changes in executive functioning across the lifespan.
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Self‐Reflection and the Cognitive Control of Behavior: Implications for Learning
Marcovitch, S., Jacques, S., Boseovski, J. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2008) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/j.1751-228x.2008.00044.x · Cited by 56 · see citing works
The Impact of Caregiver Executive Skills on Reports of Patient Functioning
Dassel, K. B., & Schmitt, F. A. (2008) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/48.6.781 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Neural mechanisms of advance preparation in task switching
Gruber, O., Karch, S., Schlueter, E. K., Falkai, P., & Goschke, T. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.12.043 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Furthermore, task verbalization has been consistently shown to affect performance in diverse task-switching paradigms including the list paradigm or its variant, the pre-cued task sequence paradigm (Goschke, 2000; Baddeley et al., 2001; Emerson and Miyake, 2003; Kray et al., 2004; Saeki and Saito, 2004), as well as th…”
BackgroundEffects of age and practice in sequence learning: A graded account of ageing, learning, and control
Gaillard, V., Destrebecqz, A., Michiels, S., & Cleeremans, A. (2008) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440802257423 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“It is now well established that healthy cognitive ageing disrupts control processes (Braver et al., 2001; Bugaiska et al., 2007; Hasher, Quig, & May, 1997; Hogan, Kelly, & Craik, 2006; Kray, Eber, & Lindenberger, 2004; Taconnat, Clarys, Vanneste, Bouazzaoui, & Isingrini, 2007; Vanderaspoilden, Adam, van der Linden, &…”
Kray, J., & Ferdinand, N. K. (2013) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12027 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationAging: Compensation or maturation?
Aine, C. J., Woodruff, C. C., Knoefel, J. E., Adair, J. C., Hudson, D., Qualls, C., Bockholt, J. H., Best, E., Kovačević, S., Cobb, W., et al. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.05.005 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Rehearsal or inner speech becomes well-automatized during adulthood and is conceptualized as a useful strategy to activate/ retrieve currently relevant task-set representations (Emerson and Miyake, 2003; Kray et al., 2004).”
Neurophysiological Measures of Task-Set Switching: Effects of Working Memory and Aging
Goffaux, P., Phillips, N. A., Sinai, M., & Pushkar, D. (2008) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/63.2.p57 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Development and Decline of Memory Functions in Normal, Pathological and Healthy Successful Aging
Aine, C. J., Sanfratello, L., Adair, J. C., Knoefel, J. E., Caprihan, A., & Stephen, J. M. (2011) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-011-0178-x · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Rehearsal or inner speech become well-automated during adulthood and is considered to be a useful strategy to activate/retrieve currently relevant task-set representations (Emerson and Miyake 2003; Kray et al. 2004).”
The Effects of Martial Arts Training on Attentional Networks in Typical Adults
Johnstone, A., & Marı́-Beffa, P. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00080 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Kray et al. (2004) suggested that if cognitive control was plotted on a graph along the lifespan, then it would take the shape of an inverted ‘U,’ with performance improving as a person ages, remaining relatively stable during early adulthood, and then declining again as a person grows older.”
BackgroundThe Role of Executive Functions in Object- and Action-Naming among Older Adults
Higby, E., Cahana-Amitay, D., Vogel-Eyny, A., Spiro, A., Albert, M. L., & Obler, L. K. (2019) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2019.1627492 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Does Executive Dysfunction Affect Treatment Outcome in Late-Life Mood and Anxiety Disorders?
Mohlman, J. (2005) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/0891988705276061 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Faja, S., Dawson, G., Sullivan, K., Meltzoff, A. N., Estes, A., & Bernier, R. (2016) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1608 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The Development of Episodic Memory: Lifespan Lessons
Shing, Y.-L., & Lindenberger, U. (2011) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00170.x · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“…between task sets, and coordination of cognitive processing in complex tasks Cepeda, Kramer, & Gonzalez de Sather (2001), De Luca et al. (2003), Kray et al. (2004), Reimers & Maylor (2005), Williams et al. (1999), Zelazo et al. (2004) (2) Prospective memory (age of sample: 7, 10, younger…”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe development of selective inhibitory control: The influence of verbal labeling
Kray, J., Kipp, K. H., & Karbach, J. (2009) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.10.006 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationGajewski, P. D., & Falkenstein, M. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.04.031 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The Role of Executive Functioning in Adolescent Rumination and Depression
Dickson, K. S., Ciesla, J. A., & Zelic, K. J. (2016) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-016-9802-0 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Cognitive Vulnerability in Aging May Be Modulated by Education and Reserve in Healthy People
Roldán-Tapia, L., Cánovas, R., León, I., & García, J. G. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00340 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Shifting development in mid-childhood: the influence of between-task interference.
Cragg, L., & Nation, K. (2009) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015360 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Brinthaupt, T. M., & Dove, C. T. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.03.003 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Les modifications du fonctionnement exécutif dans le vieillissement normal
Collette, F., & Salmon, É. (2013) · Psychologie Française · doi:10.1016/j.psfr.2013.03.006 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Effects of associative learning on age differences in task-set switching
Kray, J., & Eppinger, B. (2006) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2005.12.009 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationManzi, A., Nessler, D., Czernochowski, D., & Friedman, D. (2011) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01192.x · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Overall, these results are compatible with the extant literature, reporting age differences in RTmixing costs (Crone et al., 2004; Crone, Bunge, et al., 2006; Karbach &Kray, 2007; Kray et al., 2004, 2008; Reimers & Maylor, 2005; but see Crone, Bunge, et al., 2006, for an exception).”
Kray, J., Eenshuistra, R. M., Kerstner, H., Weidema, M. A., & Hommel, B. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01774.x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationHeilbronner, U., & Münte, T. F. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.09.066 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“In most studies of cognitive aging, this performance decrease is measured as increased RT (c.f. Kray et al., 2004), which was also observed in the present study.”
A Review of Intentional and Cognitive Control in Autism
Poljac, E., & Harold Bekkering, A. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00436 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“On the contrary, when calculating mixing costs including switch trials, larger mixing costs are reported in children than in adults (Cepeda et al., 2001; Kray et al., 2004; Reimers and Maylor, 2005).”
BackgroundExamining bilingual language switching across the lifespan in cued and voluntary switching contexts.
de Bruin, A., Samuel, A. G., & Duñabeitia, J. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0000746 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Street, C. D., Koff, R. H., Fields, H., Kuehne, L., Handlin, L. B., Getty, M., & Parker, D. R. (2012) · The Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Peng, Y., Zhu, Q., Wang, B., & Ren, J. (2020) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.8365 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
The Role of Cognitive Flexibility in the Spatial Representation of Children's Drawings
Ebersbach, M., & Hagedorn, H. (2011) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2011.539526 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Park, B., Korbach, A., & Brünken, R. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106411 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Limited Effects of Set Shifting Training in Healthy Older Adults
Grönholm-Nyman, P., Soveri, A., Rinne, J. O., Emilia, E., Nyholm, A., Neely, A. S., & Laine, M. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00069 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“All three functions, including the third one that is at the focus of the present study, have been found to decline with older age (Cepeda et al., 2001; Kray et al., 2004; Zelazo et al., 2004).”
BackgroundTask switching in mild cognitive impairment: Switch and nonswitch costs
Schmitter‐Edgecombe, M., & Sanders, C. (2009) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617708090140 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Nonswitch costs are thought to measure the requirement of keeping two task sets active in working memory and selecting between them (Keele & Rafal, 2000 ; Kray et al., 2002 , 2004 ).”
BackgroundKray, J., Karbach, J., & Blaye, A. (2012) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.03.005 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationAge Differences in Processes Underlying Hindsight Bias: A Life-Span Study
Pohl, R., Bayen, U., Arnold, N. R., Auer, T., & Martin, C. (2018) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2018.1476356 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hannes Rakoczy, B., Wandt, R., Thomas, S., Nowak, J., & Kunzmann, U. (2017) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12246 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Khoury, J. E., & Milligan, K. (2019) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054715622016 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Temporal dynamics of age-related differences in auditory incidental verbal learning
Aine, C. J., Adair, J. C., Knoefel, J. E., Hudson, D., Qualls, C., Kovačević, S., Woodruff, C. C., Cobb, W., Padilla, D., Lee, R. R., et al. (2005) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.10.024 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Task practice differentially modulates task-switching performance across the adult lifespan.
Whitson, L. R., Karayanidis, F., & Michie, P. (2012) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.09.004 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Lemaire, P., & Brun, F. (2013) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-013-0501-0 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…to be less efficient than those of older children (e.g., Carlson et al., 2005; Davidson et al., 2006; Huizinga et al., 2006; Karbach & Kray, 2007; Kray et al., 2004; Zelazo et al., 2004; see recent review by Diamond, 2013), to trigger and execute to completion inhibition and switching processes,…”
BackgroundInfluentialAltikriti, S. (2020) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854820942280 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Behavioral and neurophysiological evidence for increased cognitive flexibility in late childhood
Wolff, N., Roessner, V., & Beste, C. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep28954 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Resource‐rational approach to meta‐control problems across the lifespan
Ruel, A., Devine, S., & Eppinger, B. (2021) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1556 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Investigating task inhibition in children versus adults: A diffusion model analysis
Schuch, S., & Konrad, K. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2016.11.012 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The role of spatial information in advance task‐set control: an event‐related potential study
Astle, D. E., Jackson, G. M., & Swainson, R. (2008) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06439.x · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Subvocal rehearsal is often posited as a main component of effective advance task-set preparation (e.g. Emerson & Miyake, 2003; Goschke, 2000; Kray et al., 2004; Miyake et al., 2004).”
BackgroundBoutet, I., Milgram, N. W., & Freedman, M. (2007) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/0735-7036.121.3.270 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Development of Executive Function across the Life Span
Jacques, S., & Marcovitch, S. (2010) · The Handbook of Life‐Span Development · doi:10.1002/9780470880166.hlsd001013 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Learning in anticipation of reward and punishment: perspectives across the human lifespan
Betts, M. J., Richter, A., de Boer, L., Tegelbeckers, J., Perosa, V., Baumann, V., Chowdhury, R., Dolan, R. J., Seidenbecher, C. I., Schott, B. H., et al. (2020) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.08.011 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Huizinga, M., & van der Molen, M. W. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.10.004 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Alternatively, it should be noted that Crone and colleagues performed their analyses on mean RT, whereas in the current study RTs were nlog transformed to acknowledge baseline differences in the speed of performance across age groups (e.g., Kray et al., 2004).”
BackgroundReconfiguration and the bottleneck: Does task switching affect the refractory period effect?
Band, G. P. H., & van Nes, F. T. (2006) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440500423244 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kray, J., Eber, J., & Lindenberger, U.
- Affiliations
- Saarland University (DE)
- Max Planck Society (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Kray, Jutta
- Venue
- Acta Psychologica
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2004-02
- Volume
- 115
- Issue
- 2-3
- Pages
- 143-165
- ISSN
- 0001-6918 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2102033360
- Cited by
- 215
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 5.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Acta Psychologica (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- executive function, age differences, lifespan development, task switching, verbal prompts, verbalization, inner speech, older adults, children
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Age Factors, Aged, Analysis of Variance, Child, Cues, Female, Humans, Human Development, Male, Middle Aged, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Verbal Behavior
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