Loneliness and problematic mobile phone use among adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic: The roles of escape motivation and self-control
Open accessAbstract
In this cross-sectional study, we explored the relationship between loneliness and problematic mobile phone use among Chinese adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic, considering the effects of escape motivation and self-control. We recruited 1034 adolescents (mean age 15.76 ± 1.20 years) from China. The results showed that loneliness was positively associated with escape motivation and adolescent problematic mobile phone use. Furthermore, when controlling for gender, escape motivation mediated the relationship between loneliness and problematic mobile phone use, and self-control moderated the relationship between escape motivation and problematic mobile phone use. Specifically, as self-control increased, escape motivation was less likely to induce problematic mobile phone use. Thus, loneliness and escape motivation may be factors that increase the risk of problematic mobile phone use, and self-control should be considered in prevention and intervention strategies aimed at attenuating adolescent problematic mobile phone use.
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- Findingown data
Self-control significantly moderated the relationship between escape motivation and problematic mobile phone use.
“Self-control had a significant moderating effect in the relationship between escape motivation and PMPU”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The interaction between escape motivation and impulse on problematic mobile phone use was not significant (β = 0.03, p > 0.05).
“Escape motivation × Impulse → Problematic mobile phone use | 0.03 | 0.03 | 1.25 | (-0.02, 0.07)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Escape motivation significantly mediated the relationship between loneliness and problematic mobile phone use, with an indirect effect of 0.11 (95% CI 0.08-0.15).
“Escape motivation (0.11) exhibited a significant mediating effect”
- Also stated in: § Mediating role of escape motivation · plain
“Loneliness → escape motivation → problematic mobile phone use | 0.11 | 0.02 | | (0.08, 0.15)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Loneliness precedes escape motivation and problematic mobile phone use in time, as required for the mediation model.
- Rests on an assumption: There are no unmeasured confounders of the relationships among loneliness, escape motivation, and problematic mobile phone use beyond gender.
- Also stated in: § Mediating role of escape motivation · plain
- Findingown data
Impulse was negatively associated with self-control.
“Impulse was positively associated with PMPU, and negatively associated with self-control.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
At both low and high levels of self-control, escape motivation had a significant positive predictive effect on problematic mobile phone use (low: β = 0.56; high: β = 0.46; p < 0.001).
“at both levels of self-control, escape motivation had a significant positive predictive effect on PMPU (Fig. 3 ; low self-control individuals: β = 0.56, SE = 0.03, t = 16.20; high self-control individuals: β = 0.46, SE = 0.03, t = 13.79; all p < 0.001)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Impulse was positively associated with problematic mobile phone use.
“Impulse was positively associated with PMPU, and negatively associated with self-control.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Escape motivation was positively associated with impulse.
“Escape motivation was positively associated with impulse and PMPU”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Impulse did not significantly moderate the relationship between escape motivation and problematic mobile phone use.
“The moderating effect of impulse was not significant.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The interaction between escape motivation and self-control on problematic mobile phone use was negative (β = −0.05, p < 0.05).
“Escape motivation × Self-control → Problematic mobile phone use | −0.05 | 0.02 | −2.27* | (−0.09, −0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Escape motivation was positively associated with problematic mobile phone use.
“Escape motivation was positively associated with impulse and PMPU and negatively associated with self-control.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Loneliness was positively associated with impulse.
“Loneliness was positively associated with escape motivation, impulse, and PMPU”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Escape motivation was negatively associated with self-control.
“Escape motivation was positively associated with impulse and PMPU and negatively associated with self-control.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Among Chinese adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic, loneliness was positively associated with problematic mobile phone use.
“loneliness was positively associated with escape motivation and adolescent problematic mobile phone use”
- Also stated in: § Preliminary analyses · plain
“Loneliness was positively associated with escape motivation, impulse, and PMPU”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Preliminary analyses · plain
- Findingown data
Loneliness was negatively associated with self-control.
“Loneliness was positively associated with escape motivation, impulse, and PMPU, and negatively associated with self-control.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Among Chinese adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic, loneliness was positively associated with escape motivation.
“loneliness was positively associated with escape motivation and adolescent problematic mobile phone use”
- Also stated in: § Preliminary analyses · plain
“Loneliness was positively associated with escape motivation, impulse, and PMPU”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Preliminary analyses · plain
- Findingown data
Self-control was negatively associated with problematic mobile phone use.
“Self-control was negatively associated with PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
During the COVID-19 pandemic, adolescents who reported greater loneliness also reported more problematic mobile phone use, a positive and significant association.
“Loneliness was significantly and positively associated with PMPU during the COVID-19 pandemic, thus supporting H1.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Escape motivation completely mediated the link between loneliness and problematic mobile phone use, rather than only partially mediating it.
“Escape motivation fully, rather than partially mediated the effects of loneliness on PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The cross-sectional associations reflect the hypothesized temporal sequence in which loneliness precedes escape motivation, which precedes problematic mobile phone use.
- Findingreasoning
Impulse did not significantly moderate the association between escape motivation and problematic mobile phone use.
“Consistent with H3, we found that the moderating role of self-control on escape motivation and PMPU was significant, but the role of impulse was not, which partially supports H3.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Escape motivation predicted problematic mobile phone use more strongly in adolescents with lower self-control than in those with higher self-control.
“Compared with that of adolescents with high levels of self-control, escape motivation more effectively predicts PMPU in those with lower self-control”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The sample is representative of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Findingown data
Self-control significantly moderated the association between escape motivation and problematic mobile phone use.
“Consistent with H3, we found that the moderating role of self-control on escape motivation and PMPU was significant, but the role of impulse was not, which partially supports H3.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Escape motivation is a predictor of problematic mobile phone use.
“Escape motivation is one predictor of PMPU”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The cross-sectional associations reflect the hypothesized temporal sequence in which loneliness precedes escape motivation, which precedes problematic mobile phone use.
- Rests on an assumption: The sample is representative of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Interpretationown data
Self-control reduced the influence of escape motivation on problematic mobile phone use.
“indicating that self-control reduced the influence of escape motivation on PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
General inhibitory control moderates the relationship between craving and behavior.
“Studies have shown that general inhibitory control moderates the relationship between craving and behavior (Ma et al., 2020, Markowitz et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Ma et al., 2020
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- cites Markowitz et al., 2019 source
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- Premisecitation
Loneliness caused by unsatisfying interpersonal relationships could activate adolescent escape motivation.
“loneliness, caused by unsatisfying interpersonal relationships, could activate adolescent escape motivation (Zhen et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Zhen et al., 2019 source
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- Premisecitation
According to the I-PACE model, loneliness can influence problematic mobile phone use.
“Loneliness is assumed to be a core characteristic during periods such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Killgore et al., 2020); thus, according to the I-PACE, loneliness can influence PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
A longitudinal study showed that loneliness positively predicted levels of problematic smartphone use.
“A longitudinal study also showed that loneliness positively predicted levels of problematic smartphone use (Kim, 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kim, 2019 source
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- Premisecitation
Many cross-sectional studies have shown that loneliness is an important predictor of problematic mobile phone use.
“Many cross-sectional studies have shown that loneliness is an important predictor of PMPU (Bian and Leung, 2015, Kim et al., 2009, Ma et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Similar results regarding escape motivation and mobile phone overuse were found among South Korean and British college students.
“Researchers have found similar results regarding escape motivation and mobile phone overuse among South Korean (Park, 2003) and British (Young, Kuss, Griffiths, & Howard, 2017) college students.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Park, 2003
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- cites Young, Kuss, Griffiths, & Howard, 2017
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- Premisecitation
Studies on Chinese college students have shown that escape motivation is positively correlated with excessive use of social networks and problematic mobile phone use.
“studies on Chinese college students have shown that escape motivation is positively correlated with excessive use of social networks and PMPU (Liu and Yu, 2011, Shen and Ran, 2018, Wang et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Liu and Yu, 2011
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- cites Shen and Ran, 2018
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- cites Wang et al., 2015
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- Premisecitation
According to Compensatory Internet Use theory, individuals with psychosocial problems may use virtual networks or mobile phones to escape negative feelings such as loneliness.
“The Compensatory Internet Use theory (Kardefelt-Winther, 2014) suggests that when individuals have psychosocial problems in the real world, they may use virtual networks or mobile phones to escape negative feelings (i.e., loneliness).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kardefelt-Winther, 2014 source
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- Premisecitation
Studies have indicated that self-control plays a significant role in moderating adolescent behavioral problems.
“Studies have indicated that self-control plays a significant role in moderating adolescent behavioral problems (Li et al., 2016, Niu et al., 2020, Park et al., 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
A survey of 4509 middle school students in China found that loneliness and smartphone overuse were positively correlated.
“a survey of 4509 middle school students in China revealed that loneliness and smartphone overuse were positively correlated (Zhen, Liu, Hong, & Zhou, 2019).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Zhen, Liu, Hong, & Zhou, 2019 source
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- Premisecitation
Loneliness is an important factor influencing how much escape motivation people experience.
“Some studies have demonstrated that loneliness is an important factor affecting the level of escape motivation that people experience (Kim, 2017, Zhen et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
During the COVID-19 pandemic, very lonely individuals might turn to online networks to escape their real-world loneliness and depression.
“may use virtual networks to escape their loneliness and depression in the real world (Fu et al., 2020, Yang et al., 2020)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Fu et al., 2020
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- cites Yang et al., 2020 source
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- Premisecitation
Some lonely adolescents may satisfy their social needs through online social relationships.
“For example, some lonely adolescents may satisfy their individual social needs through social relationships on the Internet (Kardefelt-Winther, 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kardefelt-Winther, 2014 source
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- Interpretationcitation
Good self-regulation and self-control may lower the risk of problematic mobile phone use.
“It also confirms the Deficient Self-regulation Model (Tokunaga & Rains, 2010) in that good self-regulation and self-control may reduce the risk of PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tokunaga & Rains, 2010
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- Rests on an assumption: The sample is representative of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Interpretationown data
Escape motivation may affect the behavior of adolescents with lower self-control more strongly.
“indicating that escape motivation may exert an increased influence on the behavior of adolescents with lower self-control.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The sample is representative of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Premisecitation
During the COVID-19 pandemic, adolescents who wanted to communicate with friends to escape loneliness caused by disease control measures had to use mobile phones online regardless of their impulse level.
“However, during the COVID-19 pandemic, if adolescents want to communicate with their friends to escape the loneliness caused by the disease control measures (Tull et al., 2020), they must use mobile phones online regardless of whether their individual impulse is high or low.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tull et al., 2020 source
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- Premisecitation
Smartphones can let people escape negative emotions arising from the real world, including loneliness caused by COVID-19.
“As a type of media, smart phones can allow people to escape negative emotions induced by the real world (Shen & Ran, 2018), such as loneliness caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shen & Ran, 2018
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- Premisecitation
Escape motivation may mediate the relationship between a person's characteristics and problematic behaviors.
“which is similar to previous findings that escape motivation may mediate the relationship between one’s characteristics and problematic behaviors (Kircaburun et al., 2020, Shen and Wang, 2019)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Kircaburun et al., 2020 source
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- cites Shen and Wang, 2019
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- Interpretationcitation
Adolescents with lower self-control face a higher risk of problematic mobile phone use because of their desire to escape reality.
“That is, those with lower self-control are at higher risk of PMPU owing to their idea of escaping from reality (Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2010 source
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- Rests on an assumption: The sample is representative of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Interpretationown data
Escape motivation is an important risk factor for problematic mobile phone use in adolescents.
“its full mediating effect confirmed that it is an important risk factor for adolescent PMPU”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The cross-sectional associations reflect the hypothesized temporal sequence in which loneliness precedes escape motivation, which precedes problematic mobile phone use.
- Rests on an assumption: The sample is representative of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Interpretationown data
Adolescents who felt lonelier were more likely to develop stronger escape motivation, which indirectly led to problematic mobile phone use.
“That is, adolescents who were lonelier were more likely to experience increased escape motivation, indirectly resulting in PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The cross-sectional associations reflect the hypothesized temporal sequence in which loneliness precedes escape motivation, which precedes problematic mobile phone use.
- Rests on an assumption: The sample is representative of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Interpretationreasoning
Escape motivation was positively associated with problematic mobile phone use irrespective of adolescents' impulse level.
“Thus, escape motivation was positively associated with PMPU regardless of impulse level.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The sample is representative of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Interpretationown data
Self-control may weaken the influence of escape motivation on problematic mobile phone use both during the COVID-19 pandemic and in pre-pandemic life.
“Thus, whether it's during the COVID-19 pandemic or in normal life before it, self-control could alleviate the influences of escape motivation on PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The relationship between escape motivation, self-control, and problematic mobile phone use is the same during the COVID-19 pandemic and in normal life before it.
- Rests on an assumption: The sample is representative of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Premisecitation
Using virtual networks to escape loneliness and depression may lead to problematic smartphone use.
“which may cause problems with smartphone use (Wang et al., 2015)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wang et al., 2015
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- Study design and conductreasoning
Because the study was cross-sectional, it cannot establish a causal relationship between loneliness and problematic mobile phone use.
“Finally, a cross-sectional study cannot determine a causal relationship between loneliness and PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
During the COVID-19 pandemic, very lonely individuals had strong negative experiences in real-life interpersonal relationships.
“individuals who are very lonely have strong negative experiences with real-life interpersonal relationships (Bu et al., 2020)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bu et al., 2020
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- May combine two claims. 23
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 27
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataLoneliness affected problematic mobile phone use only through escape motivation, accounting for 83.55% of the total effect; escape motivation fully rather than partially mediated the relationship.
“Loneliness affected PMPU only through the mediating role of escape motivation, accounting for 83.55% of the total effect. Thus, escape motivation fully, rather than partially, mediates the relationship between loneliness and adolescent PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Loneliness precedes escape motivation and problematic mobile phone use in time, as required for the mediation model.
- Rests on an assumption: There are no unmeasured confounders of the relationships among loneliness, escape motivation, and problematic mobile phone use beyond gender.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataGender differences were significant for escape motivation, self-control, and problematic mobile phone use, but not for loneliness or impulse.
“An independent-samples t-test revealed significant differences between men and women for the variables of escape motivation (t = −2.50, p < 0.05), self-control (t = −2.17, p < 0.05), and PMPU (t = −3.77, p < 0.001). No significant differences were found for loneliness (t = −1.57, p > 0.05) or impulse (t = −1.78, p > 0.05).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataLoneliness and escape motivation may be factors that increase the risk of problematic mobile phone use.
“Thus, loneliness and escape motivation may be factors that increase the risk of problematic mobile phone use”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Loneliness precedes escape motivation and problematic mobile phone use in time, as required for the mediation model.
- Rests on an assumption: There are no unmeasured confounders of the relationships among loneliness, escape motivation, and problematic mobile phone use beyond gender.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDuring the COVID-19 pandemic, increased mobile phone use time may increase the risk of problematic mobile phone use among adolescents and affect their physical and mental health and academic performance.
“This increase in mobile phone use time may increase the risk of problematic mobile phone use (PMPU) among adolescents and affect their physical and mental health and academic performance (Arpaci & Kocadag Unver, 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Arpaci & Kocadag Unver, 2020
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PremisecitationLoneliness has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic.
“some reports have suggested that loneliness has increased during this pandemic (Killgore et al., 2020, Li and Wang, 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Killgore et al., 2020
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- cites Li and Wang, 2020 source
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PremisecitationExcessive mobile phone use can severely affect adolescent mental health and well-being.
“Excessive mobile phone use can severely affect adolescent mental health and well-being (Busch & McCarthy, 2021).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Busch & McCarthy, 2021 source
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PremisecitationThe dual-mode of self-control model includes an impulse system and a self-control system.
“According to the dual-mode of self-control model, the complete self-control model includes an impulse system and a self-control system (Hofmann, Friese, & Strack, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hofmann, Friese, & Strack, 2009 source
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PremisecitationEscapism-oriented motivation can be a powerful predictor of problematic use of video game live-streaming services and Internet gaming disorder.
“Escapism-oriented motivation can be a powerful predictor of problematic use of video game live-streaming services (Chen & Chang, 2019) and Internet gaming disorder (Kircaburun et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Chen & Chang, 2019
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- cites Kircaburun et al., 2020 source
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PremisecitationSome studies concluded that escape motivation mediates the associations between people's characteristics and problematic behaviors, such as trait emotional intelligence and Internet gaming disorder, and social anxiety and smartphone overuse.
“some studies have concluded that escape motivation mediates the associations between people’s characteristics and problematic behaviors, such as trait emotional intelligence, Internet gaming disorder (Kircaburun et al., 2020), social anxiety, and smartphone overuse (Shen & Ran, 2018).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Kircaburun et al., 2020 source
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- cites Shen & Ran, 2018
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PremisecitationThe Deficient Self-regulation Model states that individuals with insufficient self-regulation and self-control may be unable to restrain their inner craving to use mobile phones, which may lead to an uncontrolled increase in mobile phone use time, eventually leading to problematic mobile phone use.
“The Deficient Self-regulation Model (Tokunaga & Rains, 2010) states that individuals with insufficient self-regulation and self-control may be unable to restrain their inner craving to use mobile phones (e.g., escape motivation), which may lead to an uncontrolled increase in mobile phone use time, eventually leading to PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tokunaga & Rains, 2010
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Study design and conductnone givenAll students, their parents, and teachers gave informed consent, and participants were volunteers who could withdraw at any time.
“All students, their parents, and teachers gave their informed consent.”
- Also stated in: § Participants and procedures · plain
“All participants were volunteers and could withdraw from the study at any time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Also stated in: § Participants and procedures · plain
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationAccording to the I-PACE, motivation as an internal trigger can influence problematic and addictive behaviors.
“according to the I-PACE, motivation as an internal trigger can influence problematic and addictive behaviors (Brand et al., 2019).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brand et al., 2019 source
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Study design and conductnone givenThe study was approved by the Human Investigations Committee of Southwest University.
“The Human Investigations Committee of Southwest University approved the study.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationHigh levels of self-control were negatively associated with problematic mobile phone use, while lower levels of self-control were a main pathway leading to problematic mobile phone use.
“High levels of self-control were negatively associated with PMPU (Khang et al., 2012, Kim et al., 2018, Liu et al., 2018), while lower levels of self-control were a main pathway leading to PMPU (Billieux, 2012, Billieux et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSelf-control is a protective factor of adolescent problematic mobile phone use, and adolescents with low levels of self-control are more likely to develop problematic Internet use.
“self-control is a protective factor of adolescent PMPU (Niu et al., 2020), and adolescents with low levels of self-control are more likely to develop problematic Internet use (Park et al., 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationPrevious studies showed that highly self-controlled individuals were more effective than impulsive individuals in regulating their problematic behaviors and reducing the occurrence of problematic mobile phone use.
“Previous studies showed that highly self-controlled individuals were more effective than impulsive individuals in regulating their problematic behaviors (Gao, Liu, Gao, & Li, 2020) and reducing the occurrence of PMPU (Duckworth, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Gao, Liu, Gao, & Li, 2020
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- cites Duckworth, 2011 source
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PremisecitationThe stimulation hypothesis states that mobile phone users rely on instant messaging applications to establish online social relationships, which can increase social channels, improve friendship quality, and reduce negative feelings such as loneliness.
“The stimulation hypothesis (Kerkhof, Finkenauer, & Muusses, 2011) states that mobile phone users rely on instant messaging applications to establish online social relationships with others, which can increase social channels, improve friendship quality, and reduce negative feelings such as loneliness.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kerkhof, Finkenauer, & Muusses, 2011
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PremisecitationIn the face of temptation, the impulse system may produce a positive approach to temptation, while the self-control system can reject temptation through thoughtful consideration and standards.
“In the face of temptation, the impulse system may produce a positive approach to temptation, while the self-control system can reject temptation through thoughtful consideration and standards.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hofmann, Friese, & Strack, 2009 source
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PremisecitationAccording to the I-PACE, associations between craving and diminished inhibitory control contribute to developing habitual behaviors.
“According to the I-PACE (Brand et al., 2019), in the process of problematic behaviors (e.g., PMPU), the associations between craving (e.g., escape motivation) and diminished inhibitory control (e.g., self-control) contribute to developing habitual behaviors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brand et al., 2019 source
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Study design and conductown dataSelf-control was measured with the Chinese version of the Dual-Mode of Self-Control Scale, with Cronbach's α = 0.87 overall and 0.86 for each subscale.
“Self-control was measured using the Chinese version (Xie, Wang, Tao, Fan, & Gao, 2014) of the Dual-Mode of Self-Control Scale (DMSC-S) by Dvorak and Simons (2009).”
- Also stated in: § Measures · plain
“Cronbach’s α was 0.87 for the whole scale and 0.86 each for the impulse and self-control subscales.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Xie, Wang, Tao, Fan, & Gao, 2014
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- cites Dvorak and Simons, 2009
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- Also stated in: § Measures · plain
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PremisecitationBurglass (1985) stated that the main motivations of addictive behavior are to reduce pain, anxiety, and other negative emotions, i.e., to escape.
“Burglass (1985) stated that the main motivations of addictive behavior (e.g., PMPU) are to reduce pain, anxiety, and other negative emotions (e.g., loneliness), in other words, to escape.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Burglass, 1985 source
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PremisecitationReduced interaction with others in the real world and offline can increase loneliness and thus increase evasive tendencies.
“reduced interaction with others in the real world and offline can increase people’s loneliness and thus increase their evasive tendencies (Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000
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PremisecitationShen and Wang (2019) found a positive association between loneliness and escape motivation among college students.
“Shen and Wang (2019) found a positive association between loneliness and escape motivation among college students.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shen and Wang, 2019
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Study design and conductown dataLoneliness was measured with a validated Chinese version of the UCLA loneliness scale, with Cronbach's α = 0.90.
“Loneliness was measured by a validated Chinese version of the UCLA loneliness self-report scale (Liu & Wang, 2012) compiled by Russell (1996).”
- Also stated in: § Measures · plain
“Cronbach’s α was 0.90.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Liu & Wang, 2012
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- cites Russell, 1996 source
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Study design and conductown dataEscape motivation was measured with a six-item scale adapted from Kim (2017), with Cronbach's α = 0.82.
“Six items on escape motivation were drawn from Motivations for Smartphone Use adapted by Kim (2017) from Leung and Wei (2000).”
- Also stated in: § Measures · plain
“Cronbach’s α was 0.82.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Kim, 2017 source
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- cites Leung and Wei, 2000
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- Also stated in: § Measures · plain
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InterpretationcitationLoneliness may shape a person's decision to use the internet for gratification, which then contributes to problematic mobile phone use.
“the results verified the I-PACE model (Brand et al., 2019, Brand et al., 2016); that is, loneliness may influence one’s decision to use the Internet for gratification, which will in turn influence PMPU.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAdolescents with low self-control may struggle to resist mobile phone temptation and may eventually develop a tendency toward problematic mobile phone use.
“Adolescents with low self-control may be unable to resist the temptation of mobile phones and eventually show a tendency toward PMPU (Khang et al., 2012, Wilson et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPrevious studies found that people with high self-control were less inclined to escape reality by immersing themselves in a virtual world, and therefore less likely to use mobile phones indiscriminately.
“These results are similar to those of previous studies, which showed that individuals with high levels of self-control were less likely to escape the real world by immersing themselves in a virtual world and thus less likely to use their mobile phones indiscriminately (Li et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Li et al., 2016
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe study received approval from the Human Investigations Committee of Southwest University.
“The Human Investigations Committee of Southwest University approved this research.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe final sample included 1034 participants (valid response rate 94.52%) after excluding 38 incomplete and 22 uniform responses.
“Of the participants, 38 did not complete the surveys, and 22 answered all questions with the same response (i.e., they selected the same number) and were excluded from the analysis. Thus, the final sample included 1034 participants (valid response rate: 94.52%)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationDuring the COVID-19 pandemic, adolescents had fewer chances for outdoor activities, so mobile phone applications may have been a main way for them to temporarily reduce inner emptiness and loneliness.
“With COVID-19, because of the need to prevent furthering the epidemic (Killgore et al., 2020), adolescents have fewer opportunities for outdoor activities; hence, mobile phone applications may be one of their main approaches to temporarily reducing inner emptiness and loneliness.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Killgore et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe data were collected when COVID-19 was mostly under control in China and some students had returned to school, so the data may differ from other regional data during the pandemic.
“First, by the time we collected the data, COVID-19 was mostly under control in China, and some students had returned to school; therefore, these data may differ from other regional data during the COVID-19 pandemic.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe main reason people engage in addictive behavior is to escape negative emotions.
“On the one hand, the main motivation for addictive behavior is to reduce negative emotions by escaping (Burglass, 1985).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Burglass, 1985 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataProblematic mobile phone use was measured with the Mobile Phone Addiction Index, with Cronbach's α = 0.88.
“PMPU was evaluated via the Mobile Phone Addiction Index (Leung, 2008).”
- Also stated in: § Measures · plain
“Cronbach’s α was 0.88.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Leung, 2008 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § Measures · plain
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDuring COVID-19, middle and high school students were unable to attend school or meet classmates face-to-face, which may have increased their loneliness.
“especially for adolescents, because of COVID-19, middle and high school students cannot go to school or communicate in person with their classmates, which may make them feel lonelier (Bu et al., 2020, Killgore et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Bu et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Killgore et al., 2020
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe impulse system may have a positive link with problematic behaviors, increasing the likelihood of problematic mobile phone use.
“As mentioned, the impulse system may be positively associated with problematic behaviors (Hofmann et al., 2009, Li and Huang, 2012), making it more likely to lead to PMPU.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Hofmann et al., 2009 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Li and Huang, 2012
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenEscape motivation was the only motivational factor examined; no relationships between other motivational factors and problematic mobile phone use were evaluated.
“Third, escape motivation was the only motivational factor considered in the study; no relationships between other motivational factors and PMPU were evaluated.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningResponse bias may exist in self-reporting, although the study took measures to reduce adolescents' worries about participating.
“Second, response bias may exist in self-reporting, although we took measures to reduce adolescents’ worries about participating, such as giving them clear instructions, telling them there were no right or wrong answers to the questions, and emphasizing the confidentiality of the results.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Loneliness precedes escape motivation and problematic mobile phone use in time, as required for the mediation model.
“we used the PROCESS macro for SPSS (model 4) to examine the mediating effects of escape motivation in the relationship between loneliness and PMPU.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There are no unmeasured confounders of the relationships among loneliness, escape motivation, and problematic mobile phone use beyond gender.
“using gender as a covariate”
The paper relies on this without support.
The sample of adolescents from three high schools in Sichuan and Chongqing is representative of Chinese adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
“We recruited 1034 adolescents (mean age 15.76 ± 1.20 years) from China.”
“from three high schools in Sichuan and Chongqing, China”
The paper relies on this without support.
The underlying mechanisms and the relationship between loneliness and problematic mobile phone use in adolescents have rarely been studied.
“Previous studies have focused mainly on the direct relationship between loneliness and PMPU in college students, but the underlying mechanisms (e.g., how loneliness is associated with PMPU) and the relationship between loneliness and PMPU in adolescents have rarely been studied.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The relationship between escape motivation, self-control, and problematic mobile phone use is the same during the COVID-19 pandemic and in normal life before it.
“Thus, whether it's during the COVID-19 pandemic or in normal life before it, self-control could alleviate the influences of escape motivation on PMPU.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The cross-sectional associations reflect the hypothesized temporal sequence in which loneliness precedes escape motivation, which precedes problematic mobile phone use.
“Escape motivation fully, rather than partially mediated the effects of loneliness on PMPU.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The sample is representative of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic.
“Loneliness was significantly and positively associated with PMPU during the COVID-19 pandemic, thus supporting H1.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Two studies found significant positive associations between loneliness and technology-based pathologies including mobile addiction, social media disorder, excessive game addiction, and pathological game addiction, although the latter two associations varied by children versus adolescents.
“Two studies found significant positive associations between loneliness and technology-based pathologies including mobile addiction [45], social media disorder [42], excessive game addiction, and pathological game addiction [59], although these latter two associations varied by children versus adolescents.”
From Loneliness and Well-Being in Children and Adolescents during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review (2023) · cites this paper as [59]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Escape-motivation path has an incompatible t statistic
MinorFor the escape-motivation-to-PMPU path, dividing the reported coefficient of 0.44 by its standard error of 0.03 gives about 14.67, not 18.47. Even allowing both inputs to have been rounded to two decimal places cannot produce the reported t statistic.
Reported 18.47 · recomputed 14.666667
“Escape motivation → problematic mobile phone use | 0.44 | 0.03 | 18.47*** | (0.39, 0.49) |”
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Has Smartphone Use Influenced Loneliness during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Japan?
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İnternet Bağımlılığı, Akıllı Telefon Bağımlılığı ve Psikolojik İyi Oluş: Yalnızlığın Aracı Rolü
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- Authors
- Li, J., Zhan, D., Zhou, Y., & Gao, X.
- Affiliations
- Southwest University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Gao, Xuemei
- Venue
- Addictive Behaviors
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-07
- Volume
- 118
- Pages
- 106857
- ISSN
- 0306-4603 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8598166
- OpenAlex
- W3128920942
- Semantic Scholar
- 00475e8e967a09a8f5195240aad871ff4010fee6
- Cited by
- 175
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 16
- FWCI
- 43.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- Locations
- Addictive Behaviors (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Chongqing Research Program of Basic Research and Frontier Technology (cstc2018jcyjAX0480)
- Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (SWU1909226)
- National Office for Philosophy and Social Sciences (19BSH112)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Keywords
- loneliness, problematic mobile phone use, adolescents, COVID-19 pandemic, escape motivation, self-control, mediation, moderation, Chinese adolescents
- MeSH terms
- Self-Control, Cell Phone Use, COVID-19, Adolescent, China, Cross-Sectional Studies, Humans, Loneliness, Motivation, Pandemics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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