Chatbot-Delivered Psychotherapy for Adults With Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Regression
Abstract
Although psychotherapy is a well-established treatment for depression and anxiety, chatbot-delivered psychotherapy is an emerging field that has yet to be explored in depth. This review aims to (a) examine the effectiveness of chatbot-delivered psychotherapy in improving depressive symptoms among adults with depression or anxiety, and (b) evaluate the preferred features for the design of chatbot-delivered psychotherapy. Eight electronic databases were searched for relevant randomized controlled trials. Meta-analysis and random effects meta-regression was conducted using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis 3.0 software. Overall effect was measured using Hedges's g and determined using z statistics at significance level p < .05. Assessment of heterogeneity was done using χ2 and I2 tests. A meta-analysis of 11 trials revealed that chatbot-delivered psychotherapy significantly improved depressive symptoms (g = 0.54, 95% confidence interval [-0.66, -0.42], p < .001). Although no significant subgroup differences were detected, results revealed larger effect sizes for samples of clinically diagnosed anxiety or depression, chatbots with an embodiment, a combination of types of input and output formats, less than 10 sessions, problem-solving therapy, off-line platforms, and in different regions of the United States than their counterparts. Meta-regression did not identify significant covariates that had an impact on depressive symptoms. Chatbot-delivered psychotherapy can be adopted in health care institutions as an alternative treatment for depression and anxiety. More high-quality trials are warranted to confirm the effectiveness of chatbot-delivered psychotherapy on depressive symptoms. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42020153332.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Chatbot eHealth meta-analyses to date have focused on specific health conditions, resulting in few studies focusing on comparing primary health effects.
“Chatbot eHealth meta-analyses to-date have focused on specific health conditions resulting in few studies focusing on comparing primary health effects [37, 38].”
From Patient Engagement with Conversational Agents in Health Applications 2016–2022: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2024) · cites this paper as [38]
Previous reviews limited their focus to a subset of conversational agents based on the embodiment level.
“Third, the previous reviews limited their focus to a subset of CAs based on the embodiment level, such as disembodied CAs13,20, CAs with virtual representation15, or with a physical representation23–25.”
From Use of automated conversational agents in improving young population mental health: a scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [13]
Most previous reviews did not distinguish fully automated conversational agents from non- or semi-autonomous conversational agents.
“Second, most of the previous reviews did not distinguish fully automated CAs from non- or semi-autonomous CAs13,20.”
From Use of automated conversational agents in improving young population mental health: a scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [13]
A previous review showed medium to large effects of automated CA interventions when conducted on adults with clinical levels of anxiety or depression.
“Indeed, when conducted on adults with clinical levels of anxiety or depression, a previous review showed medium to large effects of automated CAs interventions13.”
From Use of automated conversational agents in improving young population mental health: a scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [13]
Rule-based AI chatbots show promise to address some of these limitations, by simulating human conversation using predefined scripts and algorithms such as decision trees, to deliver the benefits of DMHIs in a more dynamic and interactive way.
“Rule-based AI chatbots show promise to address some of these limitations, by simulating human conversation using predefined scripts and algorithms such as decision trees, to deliver the benefits of DMHIs in a more dynamic and interactive way13,14.”
From “It happened to be the perfect thing”: experiences of generative AI chatbots for mental health (2024) · cites this paper as [14]
Cites
Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629 · Cited by 56,722 · see citing works
Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & the PRISMA Group* (2009) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135 · Cited by 37,554 · see citing works
Interrater reliability: The kappa statistic
McHugh, M. L. (2012) · Biochemia Medica · doi:10.11613/bm.2012.031 · Cited by 19,877 · see citing works
CONSORT 2010 Statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials
the CONSORT Group, Schulz, K. F., Altman, D. G., & Moher, D. (2010) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/1741-7015-8-18 · Cited by 13,371 · see citing works
GRADE guidelines: 1. Introduction—GRADE evidence profiles and summary of findings tables
Guyatt, G., Oxman, A. D., Akl, E. A., Kunz, R., Vist, G., Brozek, J., Norris, S., Falck-Ytter, Y., Glasziou, P., & deBeer, H. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2010.04.026 · Cited by 10,681 · see citing works
Sterne, J. A. C., Sutton, A. J., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Terrin, N., Jones, D. R., Lau, J., Carpenter, J., Rucker, G., Harbord, R. M., Schmid, C. H., et al. (2011) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.d4002 · Cited by 7,709 · see citing works
Power failure: why small sample size undermines the reliability of neuroscience
Button, K. S., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Mokrysz, C., Nosek, B. A., Flint, J., Robinson, E. S. J., & Munafò, M. R. (2013) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3475 · Cited by 7,641 · see citing works
Vos, T., Allen, C., Arora, M., Barber, R. M., Bhutta, Z. A., Brown, A., Carter, A., Casey, D. C., Charlson, F. J., Chen, A. Z., et al. (2016) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31678-6 · Cited by 7,253 · see citing works
Self-citationA basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2010) · Research Synthesis Methods · doi:10.1002/jrsm.12 · Cited by 6,793 · see citing works
The Efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Review of Meta-analyses
Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I. J. J., Sawyer, A. T., & Fang, A. (2012) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9476-1 · Cited by 3,445 · see citing works
Clement, S., Schauman, O., Graham, T., Maggioni, F., Evans-Lacko, S., Bezborodovs, N., Morgan, C., Rüsch, N., Brown, J. S. L., & Thornicroft, G. (2015) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291714000129 · Cited by 3,152 · see citing works
Fitzpatrick, K. K., Darcy, A., & Vierhile, M. (2017) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/mental.7785 · Cited by 2,730 · see citing works
Problem solving and behavior modification.
D'Zurilla, T. J., & Goldfried, M. R. (1971) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0031360 · Cited by 2,257 · see citing works
Parametric measures of effect size.
Rosenthal, R. (1994) · Cited by 1,856 · see citing works
Persuasive Systems Design: Key Issues, Process Model, and System Features
Oinas-Kukkonen, H., & Harjumaa, M. (2009) · Communications of the Association for Information Systems · doi:10.17705/1cais.02428 · Cited by 1,663 · see citing works
Scaling-up treatment of depression and anxiety: a global return on investment analysis
Chisholm, D., Sweeny, K., Sheehan, P., Rasmussen, B., Smit, F., Cuijpers, P., & Saxena, S. (2016) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(16)30024-4 · Cited by 1,451 · see citing works
Jones, H. E. (2010) · Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2010.01108.x · Cited by 1,447 · see citing works
Carlbring, P., Andersson, G., Cuijpers, P., Riper, H., & Hedman-Lagerlöf, E. (2018) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2017.1401115 · Cited by 1,232 · see citing works
Araujo, T. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.051 · Cited by 1,156 · see citing works
Go, E., & Sundar, S. S. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.020 · Cited by 1,089 · see citing works
Chatbots and Conversational Agents in Mental Health: A Review of the Psychiatric Landscape
Vaidyam, A. N., Wisniewski, H., Halamka, J. D., Kashavan, M. S., & Torous, J. B. (2019) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0706743719828977 · Cited by 1,048 · see citing works
Cognitive therapy: Nature and relation to behavior therapy
Beck, A. T. (1970) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(70)80030-2 · Cited by 863 · see citing works
Borenstein, M., & Higgins, J. P. T. (2013) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-013-0377-7 · Cited by 767 · see citing works
Schnyder, N., Panczak, R., Groth, N., & Schultze-Lutter, F. (2017) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.116.189464 · Cited by 716 · see citing works
An overview of the features of chatbots in mental health: A scoping review
Abd-alrazaq, A. A., Alajlani, M., Alalwan, A. A., Bewick, B. M., Gardner, P., & Househ, M. (2019) · International Journal of Medical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2019.103978 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
McTear, M., Callejas, Z., & Griol, D. (2016) · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32967-3 · Cited by 594 · see citing works
The Impact of Context Collapse and Privacy on Social Network Site Disclosures
Vitak, J. (2012) · Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media · doi:10.1080/08838151.2012.732140 · Cited by 592 · see citing works
Interpretation of subgroup analyses in systematic reviews: A tutorial
Richardson, M., Garner, P., & Donegan, S. (2018) · Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health · doi:10.1016/j.cegh.2018.05.005 · Cited by 590 · see citing works
Kuyken, W., Hayes, R., Barrett, B., Byng, R., Dalgleish, T., Kessler, D., Lewis, G., Watkins, E., Brejcha, C., Cardy, J., et al. (2015) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(14)62222-4 · Cited by 527 · see citing works
Opportunities and Challenges of Cloud Computing to Improve Health Care Services
Kuo, A. M.-H. (2011) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.1867 · Cited by 520 · see citing works
Survey on Chatbot Design Techniques in Speech Conversation Systems
A., S., & John, D. (2015) · International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications · doi:10.14569/ijacsa.2015.060712 · Cited by 479 · see citing works
Problem-solving therapy for depression: A meta-analysis
Bell, A. C., & D'Zurilla, T. J. (2009) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.02.003 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
Ebert, D. D., Van Daele, T., Nordgreen, T., Karekla, M., Compare, A., Zarbo, C., Brugnera, A., Øverland, S., Trebbi, G., Jensen, K. L., et al. (2018) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000318 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Reducing the treatment gap for mental disorders: a WPA survey
PATEL, V., MAJ, M., FLISHER, A. J., DE SILVA, M. J., KOSCHORKE, M., PRINCE, M., WPA Zonal and Member Society Representatives, Tempier, R., Riba, M., Sanchez, M., et al. (2010) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/j.2051-5545.2010.tb00305.x · Cited by 420 · see citing works
Berger, T., Hämmerli, K., Gubser, N., Andersson, G., & Caspar, F. (2011) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2011.616531 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Security Challenges in the IP-based Internet of Things
Heer, T., García-Morchón, Ó., Hummen, R., Keoh, S. L., Kumar, S., & Wehrle, K. (2011) · Wireless Personal Communications · doi:10.1007/s11277-011-0385-5 · Cited by 378 · see citing works
Meyer, B., Berger, T., Caspar, F., Beevers, C. G., Andersson, G., & Weiss, M. (2009) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.1151 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Recommendations by Cochrane Review Groups for assessment of the risk of bias in studies
Lundh, A., & Gøtzsche, P. C. (2008) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/1471-2288-8-22 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
An embodiment effect in computer-based learning with animated pedagogical agents.
Mayer, R. E., & DaPra, C. S. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0028616 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Survey of conversational agents in health
Montenegro, J. L. Z., da Costa, C. A., & da Rosa Righi, R. (2019) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2019.03.054 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
How Effective are Pedagogical Agents for Learning? A Meta-Analytic Review
Schroeder, N. L., Adesope, O., & Gilbert, R. B. (2013) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.49.1.a · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Tiller, J. (2012) · Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/mja12.10628 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Morrison, L. G., Yardley, L., Powell, J., & Michie, S. (2012) · Telemedicine and e-Health · doi:10.1089/tmj.2011.0062 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Statistical Methods in Meta-Analysis
Petitti, D. B. (1999) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195133646.003.07 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Bendig, E., Erb, B., Schulze-Thuesing, L., & Baumeister, H. (2022) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000501812 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Charlesworth, J. E. G., Petkovic, G., Kelley, J. M., Hunter, M., Onakpoya, I., Roberts, N. W., Miller, F. G., & Howick, J. (2017) · Journal of Evidence-Based Medicine · doi:10.1111/jebm.12251 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Lindhiem, O., Bennett, C. B., Rosen, D., & Silk, J. (2015) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445515595198 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence-Assisted Online Social Therapy for Youth Mental Health
D'Alfonso, S., Santesteban-Echarri, O., Rice, S., Wadley, G., Lederman, R., Miles, C., Gleeson, J., & Alvarez-Jimenez, M. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00796 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Newby, J. M., Twomey, C., Yuan Li, S. S., & Andrews, G. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.03.018 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Meyer, B., Bierbrodt, J., Schröder, J., Berger, T., Beevers, C. G., Weiss, M., Jacob, G., Späth, C., Andersson, G., Lutz, W., et al. (2015) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2014.12.003 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Heeren, A., Jones, P. J., & McNally, R. J. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.12.003 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Meta-analyses: heterogeneity and subgroup analysis
Sedgwick, P. M. (2013) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.f4040 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Abraha, I., Cherubini, A., Cozzolino, F., De Florio, R., Luchetta, M. L., Rimland, J. M., Folletti, I., Marchesi, M., Germani, A., Orso, M., et al. (2015) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.h2445 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Bennett, S. D., Cuijpers, P., Ebert, D. D., McKenzie Smith, M., Coughtrey, A. E., Heyman, I., Manzotti, G., & Shafran, R. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13010 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Warmerdam, L., van Straten, A., Jongsma, J., Twisk, J. W. R., & Cuijpers, P. J. (2009) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.10.003 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Building a Chatbot with Serverless Computing
Yan, M., Castro, P., Cheng, P., & Ishakian, V. (2016) · doi:10.1145/3007203.3007217 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
A randomized controlled trial of internet-based therapy in depression
Moritz, S., Schilling, L., Hauschildt, M., Schröder, J., & Treszl, A. (2012) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2012.04.006 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Problem-solving therapy for adult depression: An updated meta-analysis
Cuijpers, P., de Wit, L., Kleiboer, A., Karyotaki, E., & Ebert, D. D. (2018) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.11.006 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Burton, C., Szentagotai Tatar, A., McKinstry, B., Matheson, C., Matu, S., Moldovan, R., Macnab, M., Farrow, E., David, D., Pagliari, C., et al. (2016) · Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare · doi:10.1177/1357633x15609793 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Mak, W. W., Chan, A. T., Cheung, E. Y., Lin, C. L., & Ngai, K. C. (2015) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.3746 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Zwerenz, R., Becker, J., Knickenberg, R. J., Siepmann, M., Hagen, K., & Beutel, M. E. (2017) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000481177 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Poole, R., Higgo, R., & Robinson, C. (2013) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139192606.005 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Twomey, C., O’Reilly, G., & Meyer, B. (2017) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.06.081 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Berger, T., Urech, A., Krieger, T., Stolz, T., Schulz, A., Vincent, A., Moser, C. T., Moritz, S., & Meyer, B. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291716002270 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Scholten, M. R., Kelders, S. M., & Van Gemert-Pijnen, J. E. (2017) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.7351 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Schröder, J., Brückner, K., Fischer, A., Lindenau, M., Köther, U., Vettorazzi, E., & Moritz, S. (2014) · Epilepsia · doi:10.1111/epi.12833 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Dealing with clinical heterogeneity in meta‐analysis. Assumptions, methods, interpretation
Kriston, L. (2013) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1377 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Moman, R. N., Dvorkin, J., Pollard, E. M., Wanderman, R., Murad, M. H., Warner, D. O., & Hooten, W. M. (2019) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1093/pm/pnz164 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Zhang, A., Franklin, C., Jing, S., Bornheimer, L. A., Hai, A. H., Himle, J. A., Kong, D., & Ji, Q. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.008 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Only connect: The working alliance in computer-based cognitive behavioral therapy
Kiluk, B. D., Serafini, K., Frankforter, T., Nich, C., & Carroll, K. M. (2014) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2014.10.003 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
The effects of psychotherapy for depression on anxiety symptoms: a meta-analysis
Weitz, E., Kleiboer, A., van Straten, A., & Cuijpers, P. (2018) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717003622 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Whitton, A. E., Proudfoot, J., Clarke, J., Birch, M.-R., Parker, G., Manicavasagar, V., & Hadzi-Pavlovic, D. (2015) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/mental.3573 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Lin, J., Lüking, M., Ebert, D. D., Buhrman, M., Andersson, G., & Baumeister, H. (2015) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2014.11.005 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Wahle, F., Bollhalder, L., Kowatsch, T., & Fleisch, E. (2017) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.7381 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Alfonsson, S., Johansson, K., Uddling, J., & Hursti, T. J. (2017) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-017-0172-5 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Berko, R., Wolvin, A., Wolvin, D. R., & Aitken, J. E. (2016) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315506937-8 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Sandoval, L., Buckey, J., Ainslie, R., Tombari, M., Stone, W., & Hegel, M. T. (2016) · The Behavior Therapist · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2016.04.001 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Lee, J. A., Neimeyer, G. J., & Rice, K. G. (2013) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2013.67.4.323 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Creating a Conversational Interface Using Chatbot Technology
McTear, M., Callejas, Z., & Griol, D. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32967-3_7 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Fernández, E. N., & Mairal, J. B. (2017) · Psicothema · doi:10.7334/psicothema2016.325 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Cartreine, J. A., Locke, S. E., Buckey, J. C., Sandoval, L. R., & Hegel, M. T. (2012) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/resprot.1925 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Predicting the attitude flow in dialogue based on multi-modal speech cues
Henrichsen, P. J., & Allwood, J. (2013) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Li, H., Zhang, R., Lee, Y.-C., Kraut, R. E., & Mohr, D. C. (2023) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-023-00979-5 · Cited by 598 · see citing works
“However, these reviews have largely focused on speci fi c types of CA 12 or particular types of mental disorders 13,14 .”
MethodStade, E. C., Stirman, S. W., Ungar, L. H., Boland, C. L., Schwartz, H. A., Yaden, D. B., Sedoc, J., DeRubeis, R. J., Willer, R., & Eichstaedt, J. C. (2024) · npj Mental Health Research · doi:10.1038/s44184-024-00056-z · Cited by 391 · see citing works
“However, these and other existing chatbots frequently struggle to understand and respond to unanticipated user responses 10,13 , which likely contributes to their low engagement and high dropout rates 14,15 .”
BackgroundRoles, Users, Benefits, and Limitations of Chatbots in Health Care: Rapid Review (Preprint)
Laymouna, M., Ma, Y., Lessard, D., Schuster, T., Engler, K., & Lebouché, B. (2024) · doi:10.2196/preprints.56930 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Roles, Users, Benefits, and Limitations of Chatbots in Health Care: Rapid Review
Laymouna, M., Ma, Y., Lessard, D., Schuster, T., Engler, K., & Lebouché, B. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/56930 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
“It happened to be the perfect thing”: experiences of generative AI chatbots for mental health
Siddals, S., Torous, J., & Coxon, A. (2024) · npj Mental Health Research · doi:10.1038/s44184-024-00097-4 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
He, Y., Yang, L., Zhu, X., Wu, B., Zhang, S., Qian, C., & Tian, T. (2022) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/40719 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Zhong, W., Luo, J., & Zhang, H. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.04.057 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
AI Chatbots in Digital Mental Health
Balcombe, L. (2023) · Informatics · doi:10.3390/informatics10040082 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Chatbots in Health Care: Connecting Patients to Information
Clark, M., & Bailey, S. M. (2024) · Canadian Journal of Health Technologies · doi:10.51731/cjht.2024.818 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Grodniewicz, J. P., & Hohol, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1190084 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Durden, E., Pirner, M., Rapoport, S., Williams, A. A. A., Robinson, A. H., & Forman‐Hoffman, V. L. (2023) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2023.100637 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Development of a chatbot for depression: adolescent perceptions and recommendations
Dosovitsky, G., & Bunge, E. (2023) · Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1111/camh.12627 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Jabir, A. I., Lin, X., Martinengo, L., Sharp, G., Theng, Y. L., & Car, L. T. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/48168 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Jabir, A. I., Martinengo, L., Lin, X., Torous, J., Subramaniam, M., & Tudor Car, L. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/44548 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“A recent systematic review on the effectiveness of CA-delivered interventions for depression and anxiety showed a significant decrease in depressive symptoms in adults [5].”
InfluentialLimpanopparat, S., Gibson, E., & Harris, D. A. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior Artificial Humans · doi:10.1016/j.chbah.2024.100081 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Li, J., Li, Y., Hu, Y., Ma, C. F., Mei, X., Chan, E. A., & Yorke, J. (2025) · Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing · doi:10.1111/wvn.70059 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Use of automated conversational agents in improving young population mental health: a scoping review
Balan, R., Dobrean, A., & Poetar, C. R. (2024) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-024-01072-1 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Indeed, when conducted on adultswithclinicallevelsofanxietyordepression,apreviousreviewshowed mediumtolargeeffectsofautomatedCAsinterventions 13 .”
InfluentialHipgrave, L., Goldie, J., Dennis, S. J., & Coleman, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2025.1606291 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Kim, H. K. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12050534 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
A systematic review of chatbots in inclusive healthcare: insights from the last 5 years
Grassini, E., Buzzi, M., Leporini, B., & Vozna, A. (2024) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-024-01118-x · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Kiuchi, K., Otsu, K., & Hayashi, Y. (2023) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2023.2286528 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Transforming healthcare with chatbots: Uses and applications—A scoping review
Barreda, M., Cantarero, D., Coca, D., Delgado, A., Lanza‐León, P., Lera, J., Montalbán, R., & Pérez, F. (2025) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076251319174 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Liu, I., Liu, F., Xiao, Y., Huang, Y., Wu, S., & Ni, S. (2025) · International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2300015 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Webster, E., Ahsan, M. D., Perez, L. R., Levi, S. R., Thomas, C., Christos, P. J., Hickner, A., Hamilton, J. G., Babagbemi, K., Cantillo, E., et al. (2023) · JCO Clinical Cancer Informatics · doi:10.1200/cci.23.00123 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Rony, M. K. K., Das, D. C., Khatun, M. T., Ferdousi, S., Akter, M. R., Khatun, M. A., Begum, M. H., Khalil, M. I., Parvin, M. R., Alrazeeni, D. M., et al. (2025) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076251330528 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Ulrich, S., Gantenbein, A. R., Zuber, V., Von Wyl, A., Kowatsch, T., & Künzli, H. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/50132 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Previous research [133] indicates user preference for a combination of predefined answer options and text input to enhance perceived interactivity.”
Hauser-Ulrich, S., Lienhard, N., Künzli, H., & Kowatsch, T. (2024) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/54945 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Martinengo, L., Lin, X., Jabir, A. I., Kowatsch, T., Atun, R. A., Car, J., & Car, L. T. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/50767 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
AI Chatbots for Psychological Health for Health Professionals: Scoping Review
Baek, G., Cha, C., & Han, J.-H. (2025) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/67682 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Cevasco, K. E., Morrison Brown, R. E., Woldeselassie, R., & Kaplan, S. (2024) · Journal of Medical Systems · doi:10.1007/s10916-024-02059-x · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Additionally, two chatbot systematic reviews were identified with lists of trials referenced [ 28 , 38 ].”
BackgroundChua, J. Y. X., Choolani, M. A., Chee, C. Y. I., Chan, Y. H., Lalor, J., Chong, Y. S., & Shorey, S. (2023) · Journal of Midwifery & Women s Health · doi:10.1111/jmwh.13472 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Rządeczka, M., Sterna, A., Stolińska, J., Kaczyńska, P., & Moskalewicz, M. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/64396 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Salamanca-Sanabria, A., Jabir, A. I., Lin, X., Alattas, A., Kocaballi, A. B., Lee, J., Kowatsch, T., & Car, L. T. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/44542 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
User experience with a parenting chatbot micro intervention
Entenberg, G. A., Dosovitsky, G., Aghakhani, S., Mostovoy, K., Carre, N., Marshall, Z., Benfica, D., Mizrahi, S., Testerman, A., Rousseau, A., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2022.989022 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Schillings, C., Meißner, E., Erb, B., Bendig, E., Schultchen, D., & Pollatos, O. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/50454 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
HCI Contributions in Mental Health: A Modular Framework to Guide Psychosocial Intervention Design
Slovák, P., & Munson, S. A. (2024) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3613904.3642624 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Chatbots and mental health: a scoping review of reviews
Mayor, E. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08094-2 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Saracini, C., Cornejo-Plaza, I., & Cippitani, R. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1662206 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Thunström, A. O., Carlsen, H. K., Ali, L., Larson, T., Hellström, A., & Steingrímsson, S. (2024) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/54581 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Conversational agents for depression screening: A systematic review
Otero-González, I., Pacheco-Lorenzo, M. R., Iglesias, M. J. F., & Anido, L. (2023) · International Journal of Medical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2023.105272 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Chatbots Utility in Healthcare Industry: An Umbrella Review
Afsahi, A. M., SeyedAlinaghi, S., Molla, A., Mirzapour, P., Jahani, S., Razi, A., Mojdeganlou, P., Karimi, E., Mehrtak, M., Dadras, O., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Health Informatics · doi:10.30699/fhi.v13i0.561 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Giansanti, D. (2023) · Life · doi:10.3390/life13051130 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Park, J., Singh, V. K., & Wiśniewski, P. (2024) · JMIR Medical Informatics · doi:10.2196/62758 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Investigating psychotherapists’ attitudes towards artificial intelligence in psychotherapy
Wagner, J., & Schwind, A.-S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03071-7 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Denecke, K., & Gabarrón, E. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1462083 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Lau, Y., Ang, W. H. D., Ang, W. W., Pang, P. C., Wong, S. H., & Chan, K. S. (2025) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/da/8930012 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationTransforming mental health research and care through artificial intelligence
Opel, N., & Breakspear, M. J. (2026) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.adz9193 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Yu, L., Ge, Y., Ansari, S., Imran, M. A., & Ahmad, W. (2025) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s25154763 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Lee, C.-H., Liaw, G.-H., Wu-Chuan, Y., & Yu-Hsin, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1159399 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Artificial intelligence and psychoanalysis: is it time for psychoanalyst.AI?
Rabeyron, T. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1558513 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Du, Q., Ren, Y., Meng, Z.-L., He, H., & Meng, S. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/78186 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Ollier, J., Suryapalli, P., Fleisch, E., von Wangenheim, F., Mair, J. L., Salamanca-Sanabria, A., & Kowatsch, T. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1185702 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Li, H. Z., Zhang, R., Lee, Y., Kraut, R. E., & Mohr, D. C. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/m3vjt · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Leveraging Novel Technologies and Artificial Intelligence to Advance Practice-Oriented Research
Atzil–Slonim, D., Penedo, J. M. G., & Lutz, W. (2023) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-023-01309-3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
A systematic review of AI-based chatbot usages in healthcare services
Jasim, K. M., Malathi, A., Bhardwaj, S., & Aw, E. C. (2025) · Journal of Health Organization and Management · doi:10.1108/jhom-12-2023-0376 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Schäfer, L. M., Köhler, S., & Krause, T. (2025) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2025.1576135 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Huynh, A., Roy, T. J., Jackson, K. N., Lee, A. G., Liaw, W. R., & Hossain, M. M. (2025) · International Journal of Medical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2025.106204 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Zhang, Z., Hu, Y., Liu, S., Feng, X., Yang, J., Cheng, L. J., Ramazanu, S., & Wu, X. V. (2024) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-024-02565-6 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationČerný, M. (2023) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe13020022 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Ricci, F., Giallanella, D., Gaggiano, C., Torales, J. C., Castaldelli-Maia, J. M., Liebrenz, M., Bener, A., & Ventriglio, A. (2024) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/09540261.2024.2384727 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Xie, Z. (2025) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051251323391 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Abid, A., & Baxter, S. L. (2024) · Journal of Glaucoma · doi:10.1097/ijg.0000000000002382 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Kuramochi, I., Oga, K., Iwayama, T., Miyawaki, Y., Ishihara, T., Kobayashi, S., & Yoshimasu, H. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19311 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Exploring the Role of Mobile Apps for Insomnia in Depression: Systematic Review
Chiu, Y.-H., Lee, Y.-F., Lin, H., & Cheng, L. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/51110 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationYang, Q., Cheung, K., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., Qin, J., & Xie, Y. J. (2024) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2024.104991 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Geng, S., Inayoshi, R., Yang, C.-L., Sramek, Z., Umeda, Y., Kasahara, C., Sato, A. J., Hosio, S. J., & Yatani, K. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713918 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Huțul, T., Popescu, A., Karner‐Huțuleac, A., Holman, A. C., & Huțul, A. (2024) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12794 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Ooi, P. B., & Wilkinson, G. G. (2024) · British Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1080/03069885.2024.2373180 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Heissler, R., Jonáš, J., Carre, N., Mostovoy, K., & Bunge, E. L. (2024) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/2024/6738001 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Olisaeloka, L., Richardson, C. G., Wang, A. Y., Munthali, R. J., & Vigo, D. (2026) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare14101395 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Aghakhani, S., Carre, N., Mostovoy, K., Shafer, R. W., Baeza‐Hernandez, K., Entenberg, G. A., Testerman, A., & Bunge, E. L. (2023) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2023.1251016 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Güleç, S. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104755 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Langhammer, T., Hilbert, K., Wasenmueller, R., Praxl, B., Ertle, A., Asbrand, J., & Lueken, U. (2024) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/2024/8950388 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Recommendations for Mental Health Chatbot Conversations: An Integrative Review
Nieminen, H., Vartiainen, A., Bond, R., Laukkanen, E., Mulvenna, M. D., & Kuosmanen, L. (2025) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.16762 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Li, Z., Wu, C., Li, J., & Yuan, Q. (2025) · Aslib Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1108/ajim-05-2024-0427 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Li, Y., Ding, X. X., Chen, Y., Li, Y., & Ma, N. (2025) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3715336.3735795 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Gong, B., Yao, N., Xie, H., Huang, C., Tomoko, K., Berenbaum, H., & Mu, W. (2026) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/82677 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Fulmer, R., Beeson, E. T., Sheperis, C. J., Rosello, D., & Edelman, R. (2023) · Journal of Technology in Counselor Education and Supervision · doi:10.61888/2692-4129.1094 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
New technology, psychiatry, and the law: Panic, prudence, possibility
Kelly, B. D. (2024) · International Journal of Law and Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2024.101984 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Dietvorst, E., de Vries, L. P., van Eijl, S., Mesman, E., Legerstee, J. S., Keijsers, L., Hillegers, M. H. J., & Vreeker, A. (2024) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076241294105 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Meter, A. V., Wheaton, M. G., Cosgrove, V. E., Andreadis, K., & Robertson, R. E. (2025) · PLOS Digital Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pdig.0000711 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Deep learning-based detection of depression by fusing auditory, visual and textual clues
Xu, C., Chen, Y., Tao, Y., Xie, W., Liu, X., Lin, Y., Liang, C., Du, F., Lin, Z., & Shi, C. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.119860 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Leung, W. K. C., Lam, S. C., Chan, B. C. L., Chow, J. N. L., Wong, Y. Y. Y., Ng, F., Yip, C. C. K., & Chan, A. C. K. (2026) · BMJ Health & Care Informatics · doi:10.1136/bmjhci-2025-101479 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Twenty Years of Personality Computing: Threats, Challenges and Future Directions
Celli, F., Kartelj, A., Dordevič, M., Suhartono, D., Filipović, V., Milutinović, V. M., Spathoulas, G. P., Vinciarelli, A., Kosiński, M., & Lepri, B. (2026) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3806009 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Leung, W. K. C., Lam, S. C., Ng, F., Yip, C. K., & Chan, C. (2024) · BMJ Health & Care Informatics · doi:10.1136/bmjhci-2024-101148 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Human in the loop: Balancing artificial intelligence, clinical judgment, and legal responsibility
Kelly, B. D. (2026) · International Journal of Law and Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2026.102226 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cockerill, R. G., MacIntyre, M. R., & Shima, C. (2024) · Academic Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40596-024-02043-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Neuroethics in Suicide Prevention: An East Asian Perspective
Wu, K. C. (2026) · AJOB Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/21507740.2025.2601351 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Bi̇lge, Y., Emiral, E., & Delal, İ. (2025) · Clinical Psychologist · doi:10.1080/13284207.2025.2515074 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Virtual Support for Real-World Movement: Using Chatbots to Overcome Barriers to Physical Activity
Sun, X., Casula, D., Navaratnam, A., Popp, A., Knopp, F., Busini, G., Wesołowski, J., Reeth, M. V., Reich, E., Wiers, R. W. H. J., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in artificial intelligence and applications · doi:10.3233/faia230084 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
He, Y., Yang, L., Zhu, X., Wu, B., Zhang, S., Qian, C., & Tian, T. (2022) · doi:10.2196/preprints.40719 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Using Large Language Models in Behavioral Science Interventions: Promise & Risk
Hecht, C. A., Ong, D. C., Clapper, M., Jones, M., Demszky, D., Yang, D., Eichstaedt, J. C., Bryan, C. J., & Yeager, D. S. (2025) · Behavioral Science & Policy · doi:10.1177/23794607251344698 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Kim, D. D., Zhang, J., Sagae, K., DeVon, H. A., Hoffmann, T. J., Rountree, L., & Fukuoka, Y. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/73184 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Lim, S., Yang, Q., Meng, J., & Rains, S. A. (2025) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2025.2567989 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationKatsiroumpa, A., Konstantakopoulou, O., Moisoglou, I., Gallos, P., Galani, O., Lialiou, P., Tsiachri, M., & Galanis, P. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13243269 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
User experience and safety of generative AI-based mental health chatbots: Scoping review protocol
Olisaeloka, L., Richardson, C., & Vigo, D. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0341631 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
RUH SAĞLIĞI HİZMETLERİNDE YAPAY ZEKA UYGULAMALARI VE İLİŞKİLİ TEKNOLOJİLER
Ülker, S. V., & AKKAN, G. (2023) · Fenerbahçe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi · doi:10.58620/fbujoss.1368922 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Abbas, S. A., Yusifzada, I., & Athar, S. (2025) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.80935 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Bays, D. K., Verble, C., & Verble, K. M. P. (2024) · Strength and conditioning journal · doi:10.1519/ssc.0000000000000831 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Kim, Y.-H., Zhang, M. Z., & Vidal, N. Y. (2024) · Dermatology Online Journal · doi:10.5070/d329662990 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Lim, S. M., Shiau, C. W. C., Cheng, L. J., & Lau, Y.
- Affiliations
- Tan Tock Seng Hospital (SG)
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- Corresponding author
- Lau, Ying
- Venue
- Behavior Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-03
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 334-347
- ISSN
- 0005-7894 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4229082340
- Semantic Scholar
- 339f24a625d39ec71bcddd8f76ee85f9130d123c
- Cited by
- 163
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 6
- FWCI
- 3.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Behavior Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Keywords
- depression, anxiety, depressive symptoms, problem-solving therapy, digital mental health interventions, treatment effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Anxiety, Anxiety Disorders, Depression, Humans, Psychotherapy, Software
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
