The importance of immune checkpoints in immune monitoring: A future paradigm shift in the treatment of cancer
Open accessAbstract
The growth and development of cancer are directly correlated to the suppression of the immune system. A major breakthrough in cancer immunotherapy depends on various mechanisms to detect immunosuppressive factors that inhibit anti-tumor immune responses. Immune checkpoints are expressed on many immune cells such as T-cells, regulatory B cells (Bregs), dendritic cells (DCs), natural killer cells (NKs), regulatory T (Tregs), M2-type macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Immune inhibitory molecules, including CTLA-4, TIM-3, TIGIT, PD-1, and LAG-3, normally inhibit immune responses via negatively regulating immune cell signaling pathways to prevent immune injury. However, the up-regulation of inhibitory immune checkpoints during tumor progression on immune cells suppresses anti-tumor immune responses and promotes immune escape in cancer. It has recently been indicated that cancer cells can up-regulate various pathways of the immune checkpoints. Therefore, targeting immune inhibitory molecules through antibodies or miRNAs is a promising therapeutic strategy and shows favorable results. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are introduced as a new immunotherapy strategy that enhance immune cell-induced antitumor responses in many patients. In this review, we highlighted the function of each immune checkpoint on different immune cells and therapeutic strategies aimed at using monoclonal antibodies and miRNAs against inhibitory receptors. We also discussed current challenges and future strategies for maximizing these FDA-approved immunosuppressants' effectiveness and clinical success in cancer treatment.
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The dMMR/MSI-H phenotype has increased immunogenic properties inducing high immune cell infiltration, particularly from tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes.
“Nonetheless, it has been proved that this phenotype also has increased immunogenic properties inducing high immune cell infiltration, particularly from tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes [12,43].”
From Current and Future Trends of Colorectal Cancer Treatment: Exploring Advances in Immunotherapy (2024) · cites this paper as [43]
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VISTA Deficiency Accelerates the Development of Fatal Murine Lupus Nephritis
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Strategies to Improve the Efficacy of Dendritic Cell-Based Immunotherapy for Melanoma
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MicroRNA-152 regulates immune response via targeting B7-H1 in gastric carcinoma
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IDO as a drug target for cancer immunotherapy: recent developments in IDO inhibitors discovery
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Immune checkpoint inhibitors for cancer treatment
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Regulatory T Cells Suppress Natural Killer Cell Immunity in Patients With Human Cervical Carcinoma
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PD-1+ Treg cells: a foe in cancer immunotherapy?
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Role of microRNA-33a in regulating the expression of PD-1 in lung adenocarcinoma
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BTLA identifies dysfunctional PD-1-expressing CD4+ T cells in human hepatocellular carcinoma
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Signaling pathways and therapeutic interventions in gastric cancer
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“Immune checkpoints are modulators of the immune system that either promote (co-stimulatory molecules) or stop signaling (co-inhibitory molecules) in immune cells and control their activity, thus, playing a crucial role in maintaining immune homeostasis in immune cells.(368,369) The first immune checkpoint molecule, cy…”
BackgroundUnraveling the tumor microenvironment: Insights into cancer metastasis and therapeutic strategies
El‐Tanani, M., Rabbani, S. A., Babiker, R. A., Rangraze, I. R., Kapre, S., Palakurthi, S. S., Alnuqaydan, A. M., Aljabali, A. A. A., Rizzo, M., El‐Tanani, Y., et al. (2024) · Cancer Letters · doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2024.216894 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Exosome-Mediated Immunosuppression in Tumor Microenvironments
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Fakih, M., Raghav, K. P. S., Chang, D. Z., Larson, T., Cohn, A. L., Huyck, T. K., Cosgrove, D., Fiorillo, J. A., Tam, R., D’Adamo, D. R., et al. (2023) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.101917 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Mechanisms of immune modulation in the tumor microenvironment and implications for targeted therapy
Czajka‐Francuz, P., Prendes, M. J., Mankan, A. K., Quintana, Á., Pabla, S., Ramkissoon, S. H., Jensen, T. J., Peiró, S., Severson, E. A., Achyut, B. R., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2023.1200646 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
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“These features, together with an immune escape via upregulation of several immune checkpoints, confer an inflamed tumor microenvironment that is highly sensitive to the immune checkpoint inhibition [5].”
BackgroundLiu, J.-L., Zhang, P., Yang, F., Jiang, K., Sun, S., Xia, Z., Yao, G., & Tang, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2023.1163046 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Furthermore, several immune cell-expressed molecules serve as immunological checkpoints that regulate the level of immune activation and prevent excessive immunological activation (25).”
BackgroundSharma, P., & Otto, M. (2023) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.08.022 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Dendritic cell-derived exosomes: A new horizon in personalized cancer immunotherapy?
Ghorbaninezhad, F., Alemohammad, H., Najafzadeh, B., Masoumi, J., Shadbad, M. A., Shahpouri, M., Saeedi, H., Rahbarfarzam, O., & Baradaran, B. (2023) · Cancer Letters · doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2023.216168 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationRecent advances in exosome-based immunotherapy applied to cancer
Xie, J., Zheng, Z., Tuo, L., Deng, X., Tang, H., Peng, C., & Zou, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1296857 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Schioppa, T., Gaudenzi, C., Zucchi, G., Piserà, A., Vahidi, Y., Tiberio, L., Sozzani, S., Prete, A. D., Bosisio, D., & Salvi, V. (2024) · Journal of Translational Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12967-024-05457-4 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“…the therapeutic efficacy and specificity of DC-derived EVs, their combined use along with immune checkpoint inhibitors, namely anti-Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte associated protein4 (CTLA4), anti-PD-1 or anti-PD-L1, was recently proposed and proved to represent a valuable therapeutic approach [125, 126].”
BackgroundCurrent and Future Trends of Colorectal Cancer Treatment: Exploring Advances in Immunotherapy
Nikolouzakis, T. K., Chrysos, E., Docea, A. O., Fragkiadaki, P., Souglakos, J., Tsiaoussis, J., & Tsatsakis, A. (2024) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers16111995 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, it has been proved that this phenotype also has increased immunogenic properties inducing high immune cell infiltration, particularly from tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes [12,43].”
BackgroundBiomimetic nanoparticles for tumor immunotherapy
Yu, H., Wu, M., Chen, S., Song, M., & Yue, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2022.989881 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Second, inhibitory signaling pathways (called immune “checkpoints”) (Alemohammad et al., 2022) that limit the activation of immune cells can be suppressed, and this approach has been shown to induce the regression of melanoma and other types of cancer (Naimi et al.”
BackgroundMacrophage-associated immune checkpoint CD47 blocking ameliorates endometriosis
Li, J., Yan, S., Li, Q., Huang, Y., Ji, M., Jiao, X., Yuan, M., & Wang, G. (2022) · Molecular Human Reproduction · doi:10.1093/molehr/gaac010 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Ghorbaninezhad, F., Masoumi, J., Bakhshivand, M., Baghbanzadeh, A., Mokhtarzadeh, A., Kazemi, T., Maleki, L. A., Shotorbani, S. S., Jafarlou, M., Brunetti, O., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.931316 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationCytokine Networks as Targets for Preventing and Controlling Chagas Heart Disease
Koh, C. C., Neves, E. G. A., Silva, T. G. D. S. E., Carvalho, A. C., Pinto, C. H. R., Galdino, A. S., Gollob, K. J., & Dutra, W. O. (2023) · Pathogens · doi:10.3390/pathogens12020171 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Panahizadeh, R., Panahi, P., Asghariazar, V., Makaremi, S., Noorkhajavi, G., & Safarzadeh, E. (2025) · Cancer Cell International · doi:10.1186/s12935-025-03655-8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Never-theless, Cancer immunity is suppressed during tumor formation when inhibitory immunological checkpoints are activated within immune cells [119].”
Ahmed, E., Masud, M. K., Komatineni, P., Dey, S., Lobb, R. J., Hossain, M. S. A., Möller, A., Yamauchi, Y., Sina, A. A. I., & Trau, M. (2024) · Biosensors and Bioelectronics · doi:10.1016/j.bios.2023.115984 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The Cellular and Molecular Immunotherapy in Prostate Cancer
Mukherjee, A. G., Wanjari, U. R., Prabakaran, D. S., Ganesan, R., Renu, K., Dey, A., Vellingiri, B., Kandasamy, S., Ramesh, T., & Gopalakrishnan, A. V. (2022) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines10081370 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“The activation of immune checkpoint pathways, which limit anti-tumor actions by inducing T cell depletion or anergy shown in several forms of solid tumors, is one of the key ways cancer cells avoid immune surveillance [64].”
BackgroundXiaoyan, T., Ning, Q., Yu, J., & Tang, S. (2022) · Molecular Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.molimm.2022.04.014 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Olingy, C. E., Alimadadi, A., Araujo, D. J., Barry, D., Gutierrez, N. A., Hardy-Werbin, M., Arriola, E., Patel, S. P., Ottensmeier, C. H. H., Dinh, H. Q., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.842653 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Targeting the prostate tumor microenvironment by plant-derived natural products
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Chen, Y., Liu, J., Chen, Y., Zhang, R., Tao, J., Chen, Y., Wang, H., Sun, Q., Wu, J., & Liu, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2023.1159829 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“An immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) represents a major barrier for the responsiveness to PD-L1 inhibitors and other ICBs (Lesterhuis et al., 2017; Alemohammad et al., 2022).”
BackgroundInfluentialVilela, T., Valente, S., Correia, J., & Ferreira, F. (2024) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Reviews on Cancer · doi:10.1016/j.bbcan.2024.189144 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Azcona, M. S. R., Monaco, G., Whitehead, M., Kaufmann, M. M., Alzubi, J., Cathomen, T., & Mussolino, C. (2025) · Molecular Therapy — Nucleic Acids · doi:10.1016/j.omtn.2025.102618 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“47 However, tumor cells take advantage of this inhibitory pathway and upregulate the corresponding inhibitory ligands to engage the T cells and escape immunity.”
Zeng, N., Guo, C., Wang, Y., Li, L., Chen, X., Gao, S., Jiang, F., & Cao, B. (2022) · Journal of Oncology · doi:10.1155/2022/1271378 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Yang, X., Yan, Y., Wang, F., Tian, J., Cao, Q., Liu, M., Ma, B., Su, C., & Duan, X. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-64447-0 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Zarlashat, Y., Mushtaq, H., Pham, L., Abbas, W., & Sato, K. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25136830 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Thus, inhibiting immune checkpoints is a promising therapeutic approach to trigger antitumor immune responses and eliminate tumor evasion [34].”
BackgroundInfluentialMilardi, G., & Lleò, A. (2023) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers15072182 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Cancer-Related Immune Therapies
Miteva, K., Anker, M. S., Fechner, H., Lehmann, L., & Linthout, S. V. (2025) · JACC CardioOncology · doi:10.1016/j.jaccao.2025.06.008 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Okpasuo, O. J., Olaoba, O. T., Bokolo, P., Aleke, A. S., Dare, A., Adelusi, T. I., & Jackson, C. D. (2025) · Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology · doi:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2025.105037 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Immunotherapy through the Lens of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer
Stanley, R., Flanagan, S., Reilly, D. E. O., Kearney, E., Naidoo, J., & Dowling, C. M. (2023) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers15112996 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Inhibitors of LAG-3 have already reached phase II and phase III clinical trials and relatlimab has been approved in combination with nivolumab for advanced melanoma [157].”
BackgroundInfluentialHoshi, R., Gorospe, K. A., Labouta, H. I., Azad, T., Lee, W. L., & Thu, K. L. (2024) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics16091181 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Inhibitory checkpoints exist to maintain self-tolerance and prevent autoimmunity [43]; as such, many cancers upregulate inhibitory immune checkpoints to avoid immune-mediated clearance [44].”
BackgroundChen, Q.-Y., Zhou, W., Zhang, J.-G., Zhang, X., Han, Q.-Y., Lin, A., & Yan, W. (2022) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2022.108798 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Zeng, Z., & Zhu, Q. C. (2024) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2024.1382183 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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Revealing the role of regulatory b cells in cancer: development, function and treatment significance
Ye, R., Li, S., Li, Y., Shi, K., & Li, L. (2025) · Cancer Immunology Immunotherapy · doi:10.1007/s00262-025-03973-w · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Zhang, W., Li, S., Zhang, C., Mu, Z., Chen, K., & Xu, Z. (2023) · Acta Oncologica · doi:10.1080/0284186x.2023.2228991 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
A comprehensive pan-cancer analysis of RNF187 in human tumors
Zhang, X., Zhang, X., Liu, T., & Sha, K. (2025) · Discover Oncology · doi:10.1007/s12672-025-01795-x · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Immune checkpoints and immune moderator genes play a crucial role in regulating the immune response against cancer cells [21].”
Wang, Y., Xiao, X., & Li, Y. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-29719-1 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Lee, S., Jeong, S., Kim, Y. J., Noh, J. E., Rho, K. N., Kim, H.-O., Cho, H.-J., Yang, D., Hwang, E. C., Bae, W. K., et al. (2025) · Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer · doi:10.1136/jitc-2024-010193 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Karizak, A. Z., Salmasi, Z., Hayat, S. M. G., Asadi, M., Ghasemi, Y., Tajbakhsh, A., & Savardashtaki, A. (2022) · Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1007/s00432-022-04452-w · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“As an immune therapy for cancer, an immune checkpoint inhibitor increases the immune response rate in clinical and paraclinical studies (Alemohammad et al. 2022; Weber et al. 2015).”
BackgroundContribution of the TIM-3/Gal-9 immune checkpoint to tropical parasitic diseases
Bailly, C. (2022) · Acta Tropica · doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106792 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Cobb, J., Rawson, J., Gonzalez, N., Singer, M., KANDEEL, F. R., & Husseiny, M. I. (2024) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines12030276 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“This occurred in association with increased Tregs, Tr1 cells, and DCs. Additionally, the regulatory cells from the vaccine-treated mice were antigen-specific and showed increased profiles of cytokines useful in controlling inflammation.”
BackgroundSmall non-coding RNAs: key regulatory factors and potential therapeutic targets in tumor immunity
Liu, Z., Dong, H., Ye, C., Yan, J., Miao, M., & Shao, Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2025.1639763 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Identification of the Prognostic Biomarkers CBX6 and CBX7 in Bladder Cancer
Li, X., Li, L., Xiong, X., Kuang, Q., Peng, M., Zhu, K., & Luo, P. (2023) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics13081393 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ansofaxine suppressed NSCLC progression by increasing sensitization to combination immunotherapy
Gui, H., Nie, Y., 袁, 豪., Wang, M., Li, L., Zhu, L., Chen, S., Jing, Q., Wan, Q., Lv, H., et al. (2024) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2024.113918 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Neuro-ophthalmic complications of modern anti-cancer drugs
Oskam, J. A., & Danesh-Meyer, H. V. (2024) · Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s00417-023-06350-4 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Their upregulation in tumor cells leads to evasion of anti-tumor T-cells and encourages tumor immune escape [95].”
BackgroundThe emerging role of TIM-3 in colorectal cancer: a promising target for immunotherapy
Karami, R., Fathi, M., Jalali, P., Hassannia, H., Zarei, A., Hojjat‐Farsangi, M., & Jadidi‐Niaragh, F. (2024) · Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets · doi:10.1080/14728222.2024.2442437 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“On the other hand, individuals with CRC who also had proficient mismatch repair (pMMR) and microsatellite stability (MSS) have not responded well to ICI treatment [44,45].”
Naseri, S., Asgarpanah, J., & Ziai, S. A. (2024) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2024.112552 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Siglec15 in blood system diseases: from bench to bedside
Fan, Y., Sun, L., He, J., Chen, Y., Ma, H., & Ding, H. (2024) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2024.1490505 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Asghariazar, V., Makaremi, S., Amani, N., Zare, E., Kadkhodayi, M., Eterafi, M., Golmohammadi, M. G., & Safarzadeh, E. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-92537-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“PD-L1 , a co-inhibitory immune checkpoint, is crucial in creating an immunosuppressive microenvironment, promoting the invasion and progression of cancer 25 .”
Chehade, L., Abbas, N., Dagher, K., Mourad, M., Amhez, G., Moumneh, M. B., Kreidieh, L., Kreidieh, F., Pereira, M. M. A. M., & Shamseddine, A. I. (2025) · Current Treatment Options in Oncology · doi:10.1007/s11864-025-01329-1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Overall, targeting immune checkpoints with ICIs has been demonstrated as an effective strategy to overcome the immune escape of cancer cells [14].”
Chen, Q., Wang, W., He, X., Wang, C., Guo, H., & Ou, C. (2025) · Cancer Letters · doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2025.218034 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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“Moreover, immune check-points such as PD-1/PD-L1, TIM-3, and TIGIT are known to play important roles in the treatment of NSCLC, OV, SKCM, BRCA, and have been recognized as biomarkers for immunotherapy response 96,97 .”
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A bibliometric analysis of global research trends of inflammation in cervical cancer: A review
Kang, M., Qiu, J., Wei, H., & Li, J. (2023) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000036598 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“[23,24] The well-known programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)/programmed death 1 (PD-1) axis is an important negative feedback loop that ensures immune homeostasis, and is also an important axis for limiting tumor immunity.”
BackgroundTargeting “don’t eat me” signal: breast cancer immunotherapy
Gao, Y., Zhang, X., Ding, M., Fu, Z., & Zhong, L. (2025) · Breast Cancer Research and Treatment · doi:10.1007/s10549-025-07659-w · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…with CD47, CD24, MHC-I, PD-L1, STC-1, and GD2, have these immune checkpoints that act as “don’t-eat-me” signals They either send out these signals or engage with ‘eat me’ signals, which in turn dampens the immune system’s response, thereby becoming pivotal components in cancer immunotherapy [18].”
Machine learning–based new classification for immune infiltration of gliomas
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“ICIs have been proved its antitumor immunity [63, 64].”
BackgroundSuccess stories: impactful applications of cancer biomarkers
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Exosome: The hidden messengers in cancer detection and immunotherapy
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“In recent years, immunotherapy has become an important therapeutic method for multiple tumor types (Alemohammad et al., 2021; Cai et al., 2021); thus, a possible correlation between the risk score and immune infiltration was assessed.”
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Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Cancer Immunotherapy
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“Research shows that high TIM-3 expression is closely associated with tumor immune escape, and inhibiting TIM-3 can restore T-cell function and enhance anti-tumor immune responses [78].”
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Identification of a lipid metabolism-related gene for cancer immunotherapy
Jiang, X., Du, W., Shi, C., Kang, M., Song, Q., Zhang, L., & Pei, D. (2023) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2023.1186064 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“It is well established that immune escape and immune infiltration are associated with tumor growth and development (Alemohammad et al., 2022).”
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The enigma of LAG3 receptor in hematological malignancies
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“Furthermore, cellular deconvolution analysis revealed opposing in fi ltration patterns – plasma cell rich low-risk microenvironments versus Treg-dominated high-risk niches (Figure 6E), consistent with reported immune escape mechanisms [26].”
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- Authors
- Alemohammad, H., Najafzadeh, B., Asadzadeh, Z., Baghbanzadeh, A., Ghorbaninezhad, F., Najafzadeh, A., Safarpour, H., Bernardini, R., Brunetti, O., Sonnessa, M., Fasano, R., Silvestris, N., & Baradaran, B.
- Affiliations
- University of Tabriz (IR)
- Tabriz University of Medical Sciences (IR)
- Birjand University of Medical Sciences (IR)
- University of Catania (IT)
- Istituto Tumori Bari (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Silvestris, Nicola
- Baradaran, Behzad
- ORCID
- Venue
- Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-02
- Volume
- 146
- Pages
- 112516
- ISSN
- 0753-3322 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4200317153
- Cited by
- 92
- References
- 240
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 16
- FWCI
- 1.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Cancer Immunotherapy and Biomarkers
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotherapy and Immune Responses
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and B-cell Immunology
- Keywords
- immune checkpoint, cancer immunotherapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, tumor immune evasion, CTLA-4, PD-1, TIM-3, TIGIT, LAG-3, regulatory T cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, regulatory B cells, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, monoclonal antibodies, microRNA, antitumor immunity
- MeSH terms
- Antineoplastic Agents, Immunological, Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors, Immune Checkpoint Proteins, Neoplasms, Monitoring, Immunologic, Signal Transduction, Down-Regulation, Up-Regulation, Tumor Escape, MicroRNAs
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