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Intranasal Administration of Oxytocin Increases Envy and Schadenfreude (Gloating)
Abstract
Background Humans have a strong social tendency to compare themselves with others. We tend to feel envious when we receive less valuable rewards and may rejoice when our payoffs are more advantageous. Envy and schadenfreude (gloating over the other's misfortune) are social emotions widely agreed to be a symptom of the human social tendency to compare one's payoffs with those of others. Given the important social components of envy and gloating, we speculated that oxytocin may have a modulating effect on the intensity of these emotions. Methods Fifty-six participants participated in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subject study. Following the administration of oxytocin or a placebo, participants played a game of chance with another (fake) participant who either won more money (envy manipulation), lost more money (schadenfreude manipulation), or won/lost equal amounts of money. Results In comparison with the placebo, oxytocin increased the envy ratings during unequal monetary gain conditions involving relative loss (when the participant gained less money than another player). Oxytocin also increased the ratings of gloating during relative gain conditions (when the participant gained more money than the other player). By contrast, oxytocin had no effect on the emotional ratings following equal monetary gains nor did it affect general mood ratings. Conclusions These results suggest that the oxytocinergic system is involved in modulating envy and gloating. Thus, contrary to the prevailing belief that this system is involved solely in positive prosocial behaviors, it probably plays a key role in a wider range of social emotion-related behaviors.
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In the citing paper
“All of our hypotheses were derived from the three major behavioral IN-OT theories (i.e., OT as a hormone of affiliation (16); OT as a hormone of social salience(15)and OT as a hormone of social approach (17)).”
From Is there a Publication Bias in Behavioural Intranasal Oxytocin Research on Humans? Opening the File Drawer of One Laboratory (2016) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Evidence for this possibility would be consistent with work showing that oxytocin in non-human mammals promotes territoriality and aggression toward intruders (25–27) and with studies showing that humans given oxytocin display more schadenfreude when interpersonal competition is lost and more gloating when interpersonal competition is won (28).”
From Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism (2011) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Increasing evidence suggests that the oxytocinergic system is involved in modulating multiple social emotions that are either positively (e.g., empathy, Sheng et al., 2013) or negatively (e.g., schadenfreude, Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009) related to social behaviors.”
From A neurobiological association of revenge propensity during intergroup conflict (2020) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“The finding that cooperative behavior can be negatively influenced by OT in certain conditions is consistent with recent research pointing to other anti-social effects of OT, such as parochialism and out-group aggression (De Dreu et al., 2010, 2011), increased envy and schadenfreude (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009) and decreased generosity towards strangers (Radke and de Bruijn, 2010).”
From The effect of oxytocin on cooperation in a prisoner's dilemma depends on the social context and a person's social value orientation (2014) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“suggesting a potential direct OT involvement in processes of social bonding and interpersonal closeness, as well as in other social and emotional behaviors (25).”
From Oxytocin and the development of parenting in humans (2010) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“Further, oxytocin did not improve social cooperation when social partners were perceived to be untrustworthy (Mikolajczak et al., 2010a), uncooperative (Declerck et al., 2010), or antagonistic (Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009; but see Baumgartner et al. 2008 for an exception).”
From Acute intranasal oxytocin improves positive self-perceptions of personality (2012) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009
In the citing paper
“Researchers have found that OT increases cooperation and trust in others, but also envy and gloating during the experience of loss and defensive responses and punishment for the out-group during threatening conditions (De Dreu et al. 2010; Kosfeld et al. 2005; Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009).”
From A precision medicine approach to oxytocin trials (2017) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009
In the citing paper
“Researchers found that IN-OT increases cooperation and social trust in others (Kosfeld et al. 2005), increases envy and schadenfreude in situations of loss (Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009), enhances mind-reading capacities (Domes et al. 2007b), increases memory for faces (Rimmele et al. 2009), and improves emotion recognition (Schulze et al. 2011).”
From A precision medicine approach to oxytocin trials (2017) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009
In the citing paper
“Since the publication of this study, increasing evidence suggests that OT's function is not always consistent with facilitating social approach, but that administering intranasal OT can also lead to parochial, competitive, and envious behaviors and behaviors that appear to be driven by schadenfreude 16,17,32 , which have an anti-social dimension.”
From A registered replication study on oxytocin and trust (2020) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“The social salience hypothesis, a recent leading hypotheses about the mechanism underlying the social effects of OT, has attempted to explain these conflicting reports by suggesting that OT alters the perceptual salience and/or the processing of social cues (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009;Bartz et al., 2011).”
From OT promotes closer interpersonal distance among highly empathic individuals (2015) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“Yet OT does not always promote approach behaviors, and has been shown to be dependent both on context and on individual differences.For example, in some contexts OT has been shown to promote risk aversion (Declerck et al., 2010), envy (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009) and lack of cooperation with perceived out-group members (De Dreu et al., 2010).”
From OT promotes closer interpersonal distance among highly empathic individuals (2015) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“and to amplify negative social emotions like envy and schadenfreude evoked by unfair money allocations (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009).”
From Oxytocin promotes altruistic punishment (2017) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“This notion is supported by recent findings, indicating that OT can increase other emotions considered negative, like envy or gloating (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009).”
From Oxytocin promotes altruistic punishment (2017) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“In contrast, Shamay-Tsoory et al. (2009) reported increases in evaluation of both negative and positive feelings induced by a monetary task.”
From Oxytocin enhances pupil dilation and sensitivity to 'hidden' emotional expressions (2013) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al. (2009)
In the citing paper
“recent studies suggest it also increases envy and gloating [6]”
From A direct examination of the effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on approach-avoidance motor responses to emotional stimuli (2013) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“One theory put forward to explain OT's effects on social cognition suggests that OT simply renders socially relevant stimuli more salient [6].”
From A direct examination of the effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on approach-avoidance motor responses to emotional stimuli (2013) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“findings showing that it also increases negative inter-personal and inter-group judgments have led to a re-evaluation of its role in social cognition [6].”
From A direct examination of the effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on approach-avoidance motor responses to emotional stimuli (2013) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“it can also promote aversive avoidance behavior by increasing envy and schadenfreude (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009), ethnocentrism (e.g., trust and empathy; De Dreu et al., 2010; Sheng et al., 2013), group-serving dishonesty (Shalvi and De Dreu, 2014), and noncooperation (Bartz et al., 2011; De Dreu et al., 2012).”
From Oxytocin facilitates approach behavior to positive social stimuli via decreasing anterior insula activity (2018) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
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Defending the self: The role of oxytocin in responses to psychological threat
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The oxytocin-attention loop of loneliness
Shamai‐Leshem, D., Radai, T., & Shamay‐Tsoory, S. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106395 · Cited by 4
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“To support this claim, they present data from studies showing, among others, more frequent gazes at the eye area under the influence of oxytocin and a rise in directing attention while reacting to emotional gaze cues [65,85,142].”
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“Other experimental work with intranasal oxytocin in humans has consistently utilized an absorption period ranging between 40 and 50 min (Heinrichs et al., 2003; Kosfeld et al., 2005; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009).”
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“There are also reports of intranasal oxytocin boosting antisocial behaviours including envy, gloating and out-group derogation (De Dreu, Greer, Van Kleef, Shalvi, & Handgraaf, 2011; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009).”
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“…精神病态和施虐人格的人仍然会幸灾乐祸, 而自 恋和嗜权人格者不会, 他们更多感到的是厌烦。 这可能与前两者的人格更黑暗有关, 因而当他人 遭遇较大不幸时 , 他们仍然会感到开心。此外 , Greenier (2018)发现在虚拟场景下 , 暗黑人格与 幸灾乐祸有关, 但在真实场景下, 两者却没有显 示出关联。这说明暗黑人格与幸灾乐祸的关系还 需要更多研究证据的支持。除暗黑人格外, 还有 研究者发现更具竞争性(Chambliss, 2016)、复仇心 和愤怒特质(Sawada & Hayama, 2012), 以及不安 全型依恋(Baren, 2017)的个体更易幸灾乐祸。但是,…”
Oxytocin amplifies the influence of good intentions on social judgments
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Potential Therapeutic Possibility of Oxytocin for Borderline Personality Disorder
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Brain Mechanisms Related to Social and Reproductive Behavior
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Oxytocin – die dunkle Seite des Kuschelhormons
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“So fanden Psychologen der Universität Haifa vor drei Jahren, dass Oxytocin die negativen Emotionen Neid und Schadenfreude verstärken kann (36).”
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Oxytocin modulation of explicit pandemic stigma in men with varying social anxiety levels
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“Additionally, contrary to the belief that oxytocin exclusively promotes positive social emotions, evidence suggests that oxytocin can also enhance negative social emotions, such as aggression towards rival out-group members 38 and envy 39 .”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., Fischer, M., Dvash, J., Harari, H., Perach-Bloom, N., & Levkovitz, Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Haifa (IL)
- Shalvata Mental Health Center (IL)
- Venue
- Biological Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-11
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 864-870
- ISSN
- 0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2095144882
- Cited by
- 542
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 46 · 2012: 28
- FWCI
- 10.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Keywords
- oxytocin, envy, schadenfreude, social emotions, intranasal administration, social comparison, oxytocinergic system, prosocial behavior
- MeSH terms
- Administration, Intranasal, Adult, Emotions, Female, Humans, Male, Oxytocin, Reward, Social Behavior
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