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Cited by 51Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorFace Recognition and PerceptionOlfactory and Sensory Function Studies

A direct examination of the effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on approach-avoidance motor responses to emotional stimuli

Open access
Theodoridou, Angeliki, Penton-Voak, Ian S., Rowe, Angela C.·2013·PLoS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0058113PMC PMC3585234
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Abstract

Oxytocin has been shown to promote a host of social behaviors in humans but the exact mechanisms by which it exerts its effects are unspecified. One prominent theory suggests that oxytocin increases approach and decreases avoidance to social stimuli. Another dominant theory posits that oxytocin increases the salience of social stimuli. Herein, we report a direct test of these hypotheses. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study we examined approach-avoidance motor responses to social and non-social emotional stimuli. One hundred and twenty participants self-administered either 24 IU oxytocin or placebo and moved a lever toward or away from pictures of faces depicting emotional expressions or from natural scenes appearing before them on a computer screen. Lever movements toward stimuli decreased and movements away increased stimuli size producing the illusion that stimuli moved away from or approached participants. Reaction time data were recorded. The task produced the effects that were anticipated on the basis of the approach-avoidance literature in relation to emotional stimuli, yet the anticipated speeded approach and slowed avoidance responses to emotional faces by the oxytocin group were not observed. Interestingly, the oxytocin treatment group was faster to approach and avoid faces depicting disgust relative to the placebo group, suggesting a salience of disgust for the former group. Results also showed that within the oxytocin group women's reaction times to all emotional faces were faster than those of men, suggesting sex specific effects of oxytocin. The present findings provide the first direct evidence that intranasal oxytocin administration does not enhance approach/avoidance to social stimuli and does not exert a stronger effect on social vs. non-social stimuli in the context of processing of emotional expressions and scenes. Instead, our data suggest that oxytocin administration increases the salience of certain social stimuli and point to a possible role for oxytocin in behavioral prophylaxis.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study with 120 healthy participants, intranasal oxytocin (24 IU) did not enhance approach or reduce avoidance to emotional faces relative to placebo, failing to support the approach-avoidance and general social-salience accounts. Oxytocin did speed responses to disgust faces and produced faster overall reactions in women than men within the oxytocin group.

Key findings

  • No main effect of drug on reaction time was found, F(1, 113) = .79, p = .38, and no significant drug × stimulus type interactions emerged, all ps > .31; oxytocin did not preferentially affect social versus non-social stimuli.
  • The oxytocin group was faster to approach and avoid faces depicting disgust compared with placebo, p < .05, while no oxytocin effects were observed for anger, fear, sadness, or happiness.
  • A significant drug × participant sex interaction was found, F(1, 113) = 4.23, p = .04, ηp² = .036; within the oxytocin group, females were faster than males, F(1, 56) = 5.66, p = .02, ηp² = .092 (females: M = 607.49, SD = 74.42; males: M = 671.54, SD = 122.97), whereas placebo females and males did not differ, F(1, 57) = .28, p = .59.
  • Task validity effects appeared: positive stimuli elicited faster responses than negative, F(1, 113) = 81.96, p < .001, ηp² = .42; social stimuli elicited faster responses than non-social, F(1, 113) = 357.13, p < .001, ηp² = .76; happy faces were approached faster than avoided, p < .05, and negative stimuli were avoided faster than approached, p < .05.

Methods

  • Double-blind, placebo-controlled design with 120 healthy participants recruited mainly from the Bristol university student population, randomized to oxytocin (n = 60, 50% male) or placebo (n = 60, 50% male); ages ranged from 18.1 to 43.8 years, mean 22.4 years. Participants self-administered 24 IU intranasal oxytocin (Syntocinon Spray, Novartis) or placebo.
  • Approach-avoidance joystick task: pulling or pushing the joystick enlarged or shrank images, creating approach/avoidance impressions; 22 blocks of 12 trials yielded 264 experimental trials per participant, with 20 facial blocks using five emotions (fear, anger, sadness, disgust, happiness) and 2 non-facial blocks using positive and negative scenes.
  • Analyses used mixed-model ANOVA with drug and participant sex as between-subjects variables and emotion and lever direction as repeated measures, plus t-tests, MANOVA for mood, Tukey HSD, and Bonferroni corrections in SPSS 16; incorrect responses (3.76%) and RT outliers below 300 ms, above 4000 ms, or 2 SD above individual means were excluded, and 3 cases were excluded for incomplete data.

Limitations

  • Stated by the authors: findings need replication; exclusive use of male facial stimuli weakens generalizability; unequal numbers of negative versus positive emotional faces; fewer non-social than social stimuli; scenes are not perfect matches for facial expressions; the optimal oxytocin dosage remains undetermined; null findings may reflect dosage not reaching relevant brain sites or stimuli not eliciting social feelings, with real-life interaction possibly needed.
  • Evident from the text: the sample was healthy and mainly university-recruited, and the task was a laboratory joystick paradigm rather than actual interpersonal approach-avoidance behavior; the non-social stimulus set was smaller than the social set, which the authors also acknowledge.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0058113

Cites

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 74 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Approach to happy faces was faster than avoidance.

    “approach to happy faces was faster than avoidance (p<.05)”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “we found that happy faces elicited faster approach than avoidance”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the placebo group, females had comparable reaction times with males.

    “in the placebo group, females had comparable RTs with males, F(1, 57) = .28, p = .59”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    No differential effect of OT was found on responses to social vs. non-social stimuli.

    “no differential effect of OT was found on responses to social vs. non-social stimuli”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Mean reaction times for the remaining emotions did not differ between the two drug groups.

    “whereas the mean RTs for the remaining emotions did not differ between the two drug groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Mean reaction times to disgusted faces were faster for the OT group compared to placebo.

    “mean RTs to disgusted faces were faster for the OT group compared to placebo, p<.05”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “the oxytocin treatment group was faster to approach and avoid faces depicting disgust relative to the placebo group”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 19
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 48

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no effects of task order and drug expectancy.

    “and there were no effects of task order and drug expectancy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT increases in-group love and protectionism.

    “in-group love and protectionism [8]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] CKW De Dreu, 2010, The Neuropeptide Oxytocin Regulates Parochial Altruism in Intergroup Conflict Among Humans, Science source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Intranasal OT selectively enhances the recognition of fear and happiness.

    “intranasal OT selectively enhances the recognition of fear and happiness [10], [11], [12]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [10] M Fischer-Shofty, 2010, The effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on fear recognition, Neuropsychologia source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [11] AA Marsh, 2010, Oxytocin improves specific recognition of positive facial expressions, Psychopharmacol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [12] L Schulze, 2011, Oxytocin increases recognition of masked emotional faces, Psychoneuroendocrinology source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Premisecitation

    Findings showing that OT also increases negative inter-personal and inter-group judgments have led to a re-evaluation of its role in social cognition.

    “findings showing that it also increases negative inter-personal and inter-group judgments have led to a re-evaluation of its role in social cognition [6].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] SG Shamay-Tsoory, 2009, Intranasal Administration of Oxytocin Increases Envy and Schadenfreude (Gloating), Biol Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin promotes bonding behaviors and attachments, such as the mother-infant bond, in human and non-human mammals.

    “This highly conserved neuropeptide promotes bonding behaviors and attachments, such as the mother-infant bond, in human and non-human mammals [3], [4].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3] KD Broad, 2006, Mother–infant bonding and the evolution of mammalian social relationships, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [4] A Levine, 2007, Oxytocin during pregnancy and early postpartum: Individual patterns and maternal-fetal attachment, Peptides source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Premisecitation

    One theory suggests that OT renders socially relevant stimuli more salient.

    “One theory put forward to explain OT's effects on social cognition suggests that OT simply renders socially relevant stimuli more salient [6].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] SG Shamay-Tsoory, 2009, Intranasal Administration of Oxytocin Increases Envy and Schadenfreude (Gloating), Biol Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    OT increases ethnocentrism.

    “ethnocentrism [7]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] CKW De Dreu, 2011, Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism, Proc Natl Acad Sci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT increases envy and gloating.

    “recent studies suggest it also increases envy and gloating [6]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] SG Shamay-Tsoory, 2009, Intranasal Administration of Oxytocin Increases Envy and Schadenfreude (Gloating), Biol Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Premisecitation

    Experimental OT elevation increases judgments of attractiveness and trustworthiness of others.

    “experimental OT elevation increases judgments of attractiveness and trustworthiness of others [5]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] A Theodoridou, 2009, Oxytocin and social perception: Oxytocin increases perceived facial trustworthiness and attractiveness, Horm Behav source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin enhances social cognitive functioning in humans and is important in interpersonal behavior and affiliation.

    “The neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) enhances social cognitive functioning in humans and is important in interpersonal behavior and affiliation [1], [2].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] R Feldman, 2012, Oxytocin and social affiliation in humans, Horm Behav source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] A Meyer-Lindenberg, 2011, Oxytocin and vasopressin in the human brain: social neuropeptides for translational medicine, Nat Rev Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Arm flexion (approach) is elicited by happy faces and faster arm extension (avoidance) is elicited by angry faces.

    “Arm flexion (approach) is elicited by happy faces and faster arm extension (avoidance) is elicited by angry faces [31], [32]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [31] AA Marsh, 2005, The effects of fear and anger facial expressions on approach- and avoidance-related behaviors, Emotion source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [32] M Rotteveel, 2004, Automatic affective evaluation does not automatically predispose for arm flexion and extension, Emotion source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Baseline questionnaires confirmed that no participant suffered from severe depression or trait anxiety.

    “Baseline questionnaires confirmed that no participant suffered from severe depression (OT: M = 9.60, SD = 5.55, Placebo: M = 11.61, SD = 6.55) or trait anxiety (OT: M = 39.05, SD = 10.53; Placebo: M = 42.71, SD = 10.23)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Independent samples t-tests showed no difference between drug groups in baseline measures of depression, trait anxiety, attachment avoidance, and attachment anxiety.

    “Independent samples t-tests showed no difference between drug groups in baseline measures of a) depression: t(118) = −1.87, p = .06”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “d) attachment anxiety, t(115) = −1.86, p = .07”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Humans and other animals ascribe valences to objects in the environment and responses to their valence are manifested in immediate approach and withdrawal to objects and persons.

    “Humans and other animals ascribe valences to objects in the environment and responses to their valence are manifested in immediate approach and withdrawal to objects and persons [23], [24], [25].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [23] PJ Lang, 1990, Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex, Psychol Rev source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [24] Lewin K (1935) A dynamic theory of personality. McGraw Hill: New York.

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    • cites [25] Osgood CE (1953) Method and theory in experimental psychology. Oxford University Press, New York.

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Intranasal OT slows down the recognition of fear.

    “slows down the recognition of fear [13]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] M Di Simplicio, 2009, Oxytocin enhances processing of positive versus negative emotional information in healthy male volunteers, J Psychopharmacol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    As a general principle, individuals are faster to approach stimuli they perceive as positive than stimuli they perceive as negative and show faster avoidance of negative stimuli relative to positive.

    “As a general principle individuals are faster to approach stimuli in the environment they perceive as positive (e.g., positive words) than stimuli they perceive as negative (e.g., negative words) and show faster avoidance of negative stimuli relative to positive [27], [28], [29], [30].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [27] T Alexopoulos, 2007, The evaluation-behavior link: Direct and beyond valence, J Exp Soc Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [28] JT Cacioppo, 1993, Rudimentary determinants of attitudes: II. Arm flexion and extension have differential effects on attitudes, J Pers Soc Psychol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [29] M Chen, 1999, Consequences of automatic evaluation: Immediate behavioral predispositions to approach or avoid the stimulus, Pers Soc Psychol Bull source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT administration enhances recognition of faces but not non-social stimuli.

    “OT administration has been shown to enhance recognition of faces but not non-social stimuli [34]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] U Rimmele, 2009, Oxytocin makes a face in memory familiar, J Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    OT dampens amygdala activation in response to fear-inducing stimuli.

    “possibly through dampening amygdala activation in response to fear-inducing stimuli [16], [17]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [16] P Kirsch, 2005, Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans, J Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [17] P Petrovic, 2008, Oxytocin attenuates affective evaluations of conditioned faces and amygdala activity, J Neurosci source

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    Premisecitation

    This view accords with neurophysiological analyses of learning mechanisms, such as that of Schneirla.

    “This view accords with neurophysiological analyses of learning mechanisms, such as that of Schneirla [26].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] Schneirla TC (1959) An evolutionary and developmental theory of biphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawal. In: Jones MR (ed). Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. University of Nebraska Press: Oxford, England, 1–42.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Participants were randomly assigned to receive OT or placebo.

    “were randomly assigned to receive OT (n = 60, 50% male) or Placebo (n = 60, 50% male).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Faces depicting disgust elicit relatively complex motor responses (i.e., conscious avoidance but no automatic approach/avoidance).

    “faces depicting disgust elicit relatively complex motor responses (i.e., conscious avoidance but no automatic approach/avoidance [33]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] EM Seidel, 2010, The impact of facial emotional expressions on behavioral tendencies in women and men, J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Premisecitation

    Intranasal OT decreases aversion to angry faces when there is a financial reward for the selection of such faces.

    “intranasal OT decreases aversion to angry faces when there is a financial reward for the selection of such faces [15]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] S Evans, 2010, Oxytocin decreases aversion to angry faces in an associative learning task, Neuropsychopharmacology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A more dominant theory suggests that OT increases approach toward and decreases avoidance of social stimuli.

    “A more dominant theory of OT's effects on social cognition suggests that it increases approach toward and decreases avoidance of social stimuli [20], [18], [21], [22]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [20] B Ditzen, 2009, Intranasal oxytocin increases positive communication and reduces cortisol levels during couple conflict, Biol Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18] G Domes, 2007, Oxytocin attenuates amygdala responses to emotional faces regardless of valence, Biol Psychiatry source

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    • cites [21] AH Kemp, 2011, The Role of Oxytocin in Human Affect: A Novel Hypothesis, Curr Dir Psychol Sci source

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    Premisecitation

    OT decreases amygdala activity during the viewing of both positive and negative faces.

    “other studies have shown OT to decrease amygdala activity during the viewing of both positive (happy) and negative (angry, fearful) faces [18]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] G Domes, 2007, Oxytocin attenuates amygdala responses to emotional faces regardless of valence, Biol Psychiatry source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    OT increases reactivity in the amygdala during the processing of fearful faces in females.

    “even to increase reactivity in the amygdala during the processing of fearful faces in females [19].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] G Domes, 2010, Effects of intranasal oxytocin on emotional face processing in women, Psychoneuroendocrinology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Task order and drug expectancies did not influence the effect of drug on approach-avoidance tendencies.

    “task order and drug expectancies did not influence the effect of drug on approach-avoidance tendencies”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study employed a double-blind placebo-controlled design.

    “This study employed a double-blind placebo-controlled design.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Intranasal OT enhances the identification of emotions regardless of valence, relative to placebo.

    “others indicate that OT enhances the identification of emotions regardless of valence [14], relative to placebo.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] A Lischke, 2012, Intranasal oxytocin enhances emotion recognition from dynamic facial expressions and leaves eye-gaze unaffected, Psychoneuroendocrinology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    OT exerts a more pronounced effect on amygdala deactivation while viewing faces vs. non-social scenes.

    “to exert a more pronounced effect on amygdala deactivation while viewing faces vs. non-social scenes [16]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] P Kirsch, 2005, Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans, J Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Interpretationreasoning

    The optimal dosage for certain effects of OT nasal spray is still undetermined.

    “In other words, the optimal dosage for certain effects of OT nasal spray is still undetermined.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    This imbalance is potentially a weakness of our design.

    “This imbalance is potentially a weakness of our design”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Positively-valenced stimuli were perceived as appetitive while negatively-valenced stimuli were perceived as aversive and led to corresponding approach/avoidance motoric responses.

    “positively-valenced stimuli were perceived as appetitive while negatively-valenced stimuli were perceived as aversive and led to corresponding approach/avoidance motoric responses”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The latter study reported a selective facilitative effect of oxytocin administration on disclosure in females but not males.

    “In further agreement with our findings, the latter study reported a selective facilitative effect of oxytocin administration on disclosure in females but not males.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [45] JC Liu, 2012, Effects of oxytocin on human social approach measured using intimacy equilibriums, Horm Behav

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Approach-avoidance responses to facial depictions of disgust are complex, such that individuals show conscious (self-reported) avoidance of disgust but do not show automatic (motor) avoidance in an approach-avoidance task.

    “Approach-avoidance responses to facial depictions of disgust are complex, suggesting that while individuals show conscious (self-reported) avoidance of disgust they do not show automatic (motor) avoidance in an approach-avoidance task [33].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] EM Seidel, 2010, The impact of facial emotional expressions on behavioral tendencies in women and men, J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    The increased salience of cues that imply threat of contagion is likely to indicate an adaptive mechanism.

    “The increased salience of cues that imply threat of contagion is likely to indicate an adaptive mechanism”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Recent experimental evidence points to sex-dimorphic effects of OT nasal spray in humans.

    “is in agreement with recent experimental evidence pointing to the sex-dimorphic effects of OT nasal spray in humans [19], [45] [56], [57].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [19] G Domes, 2010, Effects of intranasal oxytocin on emotional face processing in women, Psychoneuroendocrinology source

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    • cites [45] JC Liu, 2012, Effects of oxytocin on human social approach measured using intimacy equilibriums, Horm Behav

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    • cites [56] Fischer-Shofty M, Levkovitz Y, Shamay-Tsoory SG (2012) Oxytocin facilitates accurate perception of competition in men and kinship in women. Soc Cog Affect Neurosci. doi:10.1093/scan/nsr100. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The failure to find a differential effect of nasal OT spray administration on social versus non-social stimuli indicates that OT does not promote salience of social cues indiscriminately but instead may have a more nuanced effect for certain social stimuli.

    “It is likely that the failure to find a differential effect of nasal OT spray administration on social versus non-social stimuli indicates that OT does not promote salience of social cues indiscriminately but instead may have a more nuanced effect for certain social stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The simple perception of affective stimuli has been sufficient to induce motivational tendencies in a large number of published studies.

    “although it should be noted that the simple perception of affective stimuli has been sufficient to induce motivational tendencies in a large number of published studies [27], [31], [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [27] T Alexopoulos, 2007, The evaluation-behavior link: Direct and beyond valence, J Exp Soc Psychol source

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    • cites [31] AA Marsh, 2005, The effects of fear and anger facial expressions on approach- and avoidance-related behaviors, Emotion source

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    • cites [32] M Rotteveel, 2004, Automatic affective evaluation does not automatically predispose for arm flexion and extension, Emotion source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces set has been used in numerous social cognitive reaction time studies.

    “This validated stimulus set [47] has been used in numerous social cognitive reaction time studies [48], [5], [49]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [48] AJ Guastella, 2008, Oxytocin enhances the encoding of positive social memories in humans, Biol Psychiatry source

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    • cites [5] A Theodoridou, 2009, Oxytocin and social perception: Oxytocin increases perceived facial trustworthiness and attractiveness, Horm Behav source

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    • cites [49] P Vuilleumier, 2003, Distinct spatial frequency sensitivities for processing faces and emotional expressions, Nat Neurosci source

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    Premisenone given

    The amygdala is rich in OT receptors.

    “is also rich in OT receptors”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Interpretationreasoning

    A quick response to displays of disgust could render an individual more prepared to protect the self (and potentially young dependents) than otherwise.

    “a quick response to displays of disgust could render an individual more prepared to protect the self (and potentially young dependents) than otherwise.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A large number of previous studies have observed effects of intranasal administration of OT on social cognition/behavior using the same dosage as in our study (24 IU).

    “While a large number of previous studies have observed effects of intranasal administration of OT on social cognition/behavior using the same dosage as in our study (i.e., 24 IU)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [46] PS Churchland, 2012, Modulating social behavior with oxytocin: How does it work? What does it mean?, Horm Behav source

      Not checked in the free run.

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    Premisecitation

    OT has a crucial function as a female hormone in labor, bonding and parenting in human and non-human mammals.

    “this finding fits with the crucial function of OT as a female hormone in labor, bonding and parenting both in human- [54], [4] and non-human mammals [55]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [54] M Galbally, 2011, The role of oxytocin in mother-infant relations: A systematic review of human studies, Harv Rev Psychiatry source

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    • cites [4] A Levine, 2007, Oxytocin during pregnancy and early postpartum: Individual patterns and maternal-fetal attachment, Peptides source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [55] LJ Young, 2004, The neurobiology of pair bonding, Nat Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The amygdala is a brain area implicated in the processing of social cues that denote threat.

    “the amygdala, a brain area that has been implicated in the processing of social cues that denote threat [51]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] R Adolphs, 2008, Fear, faces, and the human amygdala, Curr Opin Neurobiol source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A recent study failed to find a uniform effect of OT administration on approach behaviour as measured by intimacy equilibrium (increased disclosure and eye-contact) between two strangers.

    “This finding accords with a very recent study that failed to find a uniform effect of OT administration on approach behaviour as measured by intimacy equilibrium (i.e., increased disclosure and eye-contact) between two strangers [45].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [45] JC Liu, 2012, Effects of oxytocin on human social approach measured using intimacy equilibriums, Horm Behav

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Previous research strongly suggests that intranasal administration of OT can reliably influence socially relevant judgments and ratings, relative to placebo.

    “While previous research strongly suggests that intranasal administration of OT can reliably influence socially relevant judgments and ratings, relative to placebo [58], [17], [5]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [58] GJ Norman, 2011, Selective influences of oxytocin on the evaluative processing of social stimuli, J Psychopharmacol source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [17] P Petrovic, 2008, Oxytocin attenuates affective evaluations of conditioned faces and amygdala activity, J Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] A Theodoridou, 2009, Oxytocin and social perception: Oxytocin increases perceived facial trustworthiness and attractiveness, Horm Behav source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other studies have reported behavioral effects using higher dosages (e.g., 30 IU).

    “other studies have reported behavioral effects using higher dosages (e.g., 30 IU) making interpretation and comparison of results somewhat difficult [46].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [46] PS Churchland, 2012, Modulating social behavior with oxytocin: How does it work? What does it mean?, Horm Behav source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is likely that OT also affects amygdala activation during the processing of cues that signal the threat of possible contagion.

    “It is likely that OT also affects amygdala activation during the processing of cues that signal the threat of possible contagion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The unequal number of negative and positive emotional faces is a potential limitation of our study.

    “A further potential limitation of our study concerns the unequal number of negative and positive emotional faces.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Our findings need replication to allow confidence in the pattern of results.

    “On this basis, our findings need replication to allow confidence in the pattern of results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Previous published OT studies have also compared images of landscapes to faces.

    “Indeed, previous published OT studies have also compared images of landscapes to faces [16], [34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [16] P Kirsch, 2005, Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans, J Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [34] U Rimmele, 2009, Oxytocin makes a face in memory familiar, J Neurosci source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Scenes that are devoid of facial images are appropriate non-social stimuli.

    “We feel that scenes that are devoid of facial images are appropriate non-social stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Anger and fear can elicit both approach (fight) and avoidance (flee) tendencies.

    “While anger and fear can elicit both approach (fight) and avoidance (flee) tendencies [31]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] AA Marsh, 2005, The effects of fear and anger facial expressions on approach- and avoidance-related behaviors, Emotion source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The negative facial stimuli presented here outnumber the positive ones.

    “Admittedly, the negative facial stimuli presented here outnumber the positive ones”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Happy faces are the least ambiguous among the emotional expressions, explaining why they elicit the most consistent response in perceivers.

    “happy faces are the least ambiguous among the emotional expressions, explaining why they elicit the most consistent response in perceivers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The current study yielded no support for either of the two dominant theories that have been put forward to account for OT's role in social cognition.

    “Despite yielding no support for either of the two dominant theories that have been put forward to account for OT's role in social cognition”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The current study is informative regarding the function of OT in social cognition and specifically how OT spray may and may not affect the processing of socially-relevant cues.

    “the current study is nevertheless informative regarding the function of OT in social cognition and specifically how OT spray may and may not affect the processing of socially-relevant cues.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The theory that OT increases approach to social stimuli and decreases avoidance.

    “the theory that OT increases approach to social stimuli and decreases avoidance [21].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] AH Kemp, 2011, The Role of Oxytocin in Human Affect: A Novel Hypothesis, Curr Dir Psychol Sci source

      Not checked in the free run.

58 of 58

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The theory that OT increases approach and decreases avoidance of social stimuli is yet to be directly tested in humans.

    “but this theory is yet to be directly tested in humans.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is an absence of substantial direct evidence for sex-specific OT effects.

    “in the absence of substantial direct evidence for sex-specific OT effects”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This is the first direct examination of the hypothesis that intranasal OT increases approach and decreases avoidance toward social vs non-social stimuli.

    “To our knowledge, this is the first direct examination of the hypothesis that intranasal OT increases approach and decreases avoidance toward social vs non-social stimuli [21].”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is only one basic positive emotion, namely happiness, at least in validated and established facial expression data sets designed for experimental purposes.

    “given that there is only one basic positive emotion, namely, happiness – at least as found in validated and established facial expression data sets designed for experimental purposes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Finding a perfect scene match for a face represents a near-impossible task.

    “finding a perfect scene match for a face represents a near-impossible task.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The scenes do not necessarily match the facial expressions of emotion.

    “although the scenes do not necessarily match the facial expressions of emotion”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Being able to respond quickly to potential contagion in one's environment is adaptive.

    “Being able to respond quickly to potential contagion in one's environment is adaptive.”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Theodoridou et al. (2013) reported test statistics that showed no significant effect of intranasal oxytocin on approach or avoidance responses to social threat.

    “The authors did not report the relevant data to allow effect sizes to be calculated, but reported test statistics that showed no significant effect of intranasal oxytocin on approach or avoidance responses (Theodoridou et al., 2013).”

    From Meta-analytic review of the effects of a single dose of intranasal oxytocin on threat processing in humans (2018) · cites this paper as Theodoridou et al., 2013

  • In a previous study, oxytocin accelerated both approach and avoidance behavior towards emotionally negative stimuli such as disgusted faces.

    “In a previous study that examined the effects of intranasal OT on human AA behavior, OT was found to accelerate both approach and avoidance behavior towards emotionally negative stimuli such as disgusted faces (Theodoridou et al., 2013; Harari-Dahan and Bernstein, 2017).”

    From Oxytocin facilitates approach behavior to positive social stimuli via decreasing anterior insula activity (2018) · cites this paper as Theodoridou et al., 2013

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Not confirmedF(1, 57) = 0.28reported p = .59 · recomputed p = .599

    “F(1, 57) = .28, p = .59”

  • Consistentt(118) = -1.87reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .064

    “t(118) = −1.87, p = .06”

  • Consistentt(118) = -1.94reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .055

    “t(118) = −1.94, p = .06”

  • Consistentt(115) = -0.94reported p = .35 · recomputed p = .349

    “t(115) = −.94, p = .35”

  • Consistentt(115) = -1.86reported p = .07 · recomputed p = .065

    “t(115) = −1.86, p = .07”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 0.79reported p = .38 · recomputed p = .376

    “F(1, 113) = .79, p = .38”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 1.78reported p = .19 · recomputed p = .185

    “F(1, 113) = 1.78, p = .19”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 4.23reported p = .04 · recomputed p = .042

    “F(1, 113) = 4.23, p = .04”

  • ConsistentF(3.33, 376.08) = 37.84reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(3.33, 376.08) = 37.84, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(3.33, 376.08) = 3reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .031

    “F(3.33, 376.08) = 3.00, p = .03”

  • ConsistentF(3.86, 436.26) = 6.1reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(3.86, 436.26) = 6.10, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 56) = 5.66reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .021

    “F(1, 56) = 5.66, p = .02”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 0.74reported p = .39 · recomputed p = .391

    “F(1,113) = .74, p = .39”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 81.96reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,113) = 81.96, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 357.13reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,113) = 357.13, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 7.72reported p = .006 · recomputed p = .006

    “F(1,113) = 7.72, p = .006”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 12.63reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,113) = 12.63, p = .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 113) = 8.45reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004

    “F(1,113) = 8.45, p = .004”

  • ConsistentF(1, 115) = 0.002reported p = .96 · recomputed p = .964

    “F(1, 115) = .002, p = .96”

  • ConsistentF(1, 115) = 5reported p = .82 · recomputed p = .027

    “F(1, 115) = 05, p = .82”

    The paper states a correction for multiple tests

  • ConsistentF(1, 115) = 0.49reported p = .49 · recomputed p = .485

    “F(1, 115) = .49, p = .49”

21 of 21

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Enlarged and reduced image dimensions are reversed

    Minor

    The stated enlarged image is about half the initial width and height, while the stated reduced image is twice the initial width and height. These dimensions contradict the description that pulling enlarges the image and pushing shrinks it.

1 of 1

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 57 · Cited by 51

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Schneirla TC (1959) An evolutionary and developmental theory of biphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawal. In: Jones MR (ed). Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. University of Nebraska Press: Oxford, England, 1–42.

Authors
Theodoridou, A., Penton-Voak, I. S., & Rowe, A. C.
Affiliations
University of Bristol (GB)
Corresponding author
Theodoridou, Angeliki
ORCID
Rowe, Angela C.
Venue
PLoS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2013-02-28
Volume
8
Issue
2
Pages
e58113
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0058113
PMC
PMC3585234
OpenAlex
W2089430050
Cited by
51
References
57
Citations by year
2023: 2 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 2
FWCI
12.51
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Explore Bristol Research (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • University of Bristol
  • Economic and Social Research Council
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Sensory Systems › Olfactory and Sensory Function Studies
Keywords
oxytocin, intranasal administration, approach-avoidance behavior, emotional stimuli, emotional facial expressions, disgust, salience, sex differences, reaction time, social behavior
MeSH terms
Administration, Intranasal, Adolescent, Adult, Avoidance Learning, Emotions, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Motor Activity, Oxytocin, Photic Stimulation, Psychomotor Performance, Sex Factors, Recognition, Psychology, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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