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Cited by 25Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorExperimental Behavioral Economics StudiesEvolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation

Oxytocin promotes altruistic punishment

Open access
Aydogan, Gökhan, Furtner, Nadja C, Kern, Bianca, Jobst, Andrea, Müller, Norbert, Kocher, Martin G·2017·Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience
DOI 10.1093/scan/nsx101PMC PMC5714236
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Abstract

The role of neuromodulators in the enforcement of cooperation is still not well understood. Here, we provide evidence that intranasal applied oxytocin, an important hormone for modulating social behavior, enhances the inclination to sanction free-riders in a social dilemma situation. Contrary to the notion of oxytocin being a pro-social hormone, we found that participants treated with oxytocin exhibited an amplification of self-reported negative social emotions such as anger towards free-riders, ultimately resulting in higher magnitude and frequency of punishment of free-riders compared to placebo. Furthermore, we found initial evidence that oxytocin contributes to the positive effects of a punishment institution by rendering cooperation preferable in the oxytocin condition for even the most selfish players when punishment was available. Together, these findings imply that the neural circuits underlying altruistic punishment are partly targeted by the oxytonergic system and highlight the importance of neuromodulators in group cohesion and norm enforcement within social groups.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Intranasal oxytocin increased altruistic punishment of free-riders in a one-shot prisoner’s dilemma with punishment, and amplified negative social emotions such as anger toward defectors. The findings challenge a simple “pro-social” view of oxytocin by showing that it can promote norm enforcement through harsher punishment.

Key findings

  • Defectors in the oxytocin group received an average of 4.3 punishment points vs 2.2 in the placebo group (Mann–Whitney U-test; z = −2.334, P = 0.0196), corresponding to an average payoff reduction of 12.9 MU vs 6.6 MU.
  • Cooperators punished 43% (19/44) of defectors in the oxytocin group vs 22% (15/68) in the placebo group (χ² = 5.6379, df = 1, P = 0.018); punishment of cooperators was virtually absent and did not differ between groups (OT M = 0.72 vs placebo M = 0.10; P = 0.5630).
  • A Tobit regression showed that the interaction between oxytocin and negative deviation significantly increased received deduction points (coefficient = 5.707, SE = 2.474, P < 0.05), while oxytocin alone had no significant effect.
  • Oxytocin increased self-reported anger toward defectors (M = 3.07 vs 1.65; P = 0.007) and disappointment (M = 2.95 vs 2.20; P = 0.0718), and reduced perceived fairness of defectors (M = 2.93 vs 3.39; P = 0.0629); cooperation was higher with punishment (b = 0.359, P < 0.001) and with oxytocin (b = 0.146, P = 0.035), with no significant interaction (b = 0.053, P = 0.602).

Methods

  • Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled between-subjects design with 144 male participants aged 18–33 (M = 23.7, SD = 3.1); participants self-administered intranasal oxytocin (n = 72) or placebo (n = 72; 3 puffs per nostril, 4 IU each).
  • Participants played a one-shot three-person prisoner’s dilemma without punishment (PDGX) and with punishment (PDGS); in PDGS they could assign up to 10 deduction points to each other group member, costing the punisher 1 MU and deducting 3 MU from the recipient.
  • Main analyses included Tobit regressions on received deduction points (N = 288, clustered on participant), Mann–Whitney U tests, Probit regressions on cooperation, and Fisher exact/χ² tests for punishment rates.

Limitations

  • The paper describes its findings as “initial evidence” and repeatedly calls for more research on oxytocin, social norms, and norm enforcement; it also notes that more research is required to examine potential effects of oxytocin on perspective taking in strategic settings (stated).
  • The sample consisted only of 144 male participants aged 18–33, so generalizability to women and other age groups is not established (evident from the text).
  • The paper cites concerns about poor replicability in the intranasal oxytocin literature and small sample sizes, though it recruited a substantially larger sample than similar studies; no formal limitations section is otherwise provided (stated/evident).

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1093/scan/nsx101

Cites

44 of 44 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 36 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Intranasal oxytocin enhances the inclination to sanction free-riders in a social dilemma situation.

    “Here, we provide evidence that intranasal applied oxytocin, an important hormone for modulating social behavior, enhances the inclination to sanction free-riders in a social dilemma situation.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Thus, we conclude that OT exhibits both, an amplification effect on the punishment magnitude as well as on the punishment rate toward defectors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Participants treated with oxytocin exhibited amplified self-reported negative social emotions such as anger towards free-riders.

    “Contrary to the notion of oxytocin being a pro-social hormone, we found that participants treated with oxytocin exhibited an amplification of self-reported negative social emotions such as anger towards free-riders”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Our data shows that participants given OT reported higher levels of anger towards defectors (M = 3.07 vs 1.65; SD = 2.59 vs 2.57; Mann–Whitney U-test; z = −2.701, P = 0.007, two-sided, controlled for baseline emotions)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Oxytocin treatment resulted in higher magnitude of punishment of free-riders compared to placebo.

    “ultimately resulting in higher magnitude and frequency of punishment of free-riders compared to placebo.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Conversely, we find that defectors in the OT group received an average of 4.3 punishment points (Figure 1A), which is almost twice as much as the amount of 2.2 punishment points imposed on defectors in the placebo group (Mann–Whitney U-test; z = −2.334, P = 0.0196, two-sided).”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Model 2 extends Model 1 by OT and its interaction with free-riding behavior, and shows that a negative deviation leads to a harsher punishment in the OT treatment compared to the placebo treatment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Oxytocin treatment resulted in higher frequency/rate of punishment of free-riders compared to placebo.

    “ultimately resulting in higher magnitude and frequency of punishment of free-riders compared to placebo.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “By contrast, about 43% (19 out of 44) of defectors in the OT group were punished, which is significantly higher than the punishment rate in the placebo group (χ2 = 5.6379; df = 1; P = 0.018, two-sided).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Participants given oxytocin reported higher levels of disappointment (M = 2.95 vs 2.20; P = 0.0718, controlled for baseline emotions).

    “and higher levels of disappointment (M = 2.95 vs 2.20; SD = 2.47 vs 2.23; Mann–Whitney U-test; z = −1.800, P = 0.0718, two-sided, controlled for baseline emotions).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 16
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Punishment of cooperators was virtually absent in both treatment groups and did not differ between oxytocin and placebo.

    “This result is confirmed by the finding that punishment of cooperators was virtually absent in both treatment groups (Figure 1B), without any statistical difference between them (Mann–Whitney U-test; z = −0.578, P = 0.5630, two-sided).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the placebo group, roughly 22% of all defectors were punished by cooperators; in the oxytocin group, about 43% of defectors were punished by cooperators.

    “In the placebo group, roughly 22% (15 out of 68) of all defectors were punished by cooperators. By contrast, about 43% (19 out of 44) of defectors in the OT group were punished, which is significantly higher than the punishment rate in the placebo group (χ2 = 5.6379; df = 1; P = 0.018, two-sided).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants receive deduction points if they negatively deviate (defect while another cooperates) but not if they positively deviate (cooperate while another defects).

    “The first regression in Model 1 reveals that participants receive deduction points if they negatively deviate, i.e. if they defect when the other group member j chooses to cooperate, but not if they positively deviate (i.e. if i cooperates but j does not).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Due to altruistic punishment, playing 'defect' is neither in the oxytocin nor in the placebo condition a dominant strategy.

    “Due to altruistic punishment, playing ‘defect’ is neither in the oxytocin (A) nor in the placebo (B) condition a dominant strategy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Cooperation levels are significantly higher when punishment of free-riders is possible compared to when it is not.

    “Our results suggest that, while cooperation levels are significantly higher when punishment of free-riders is possible compared to when it is not—a result that has been established multiple times in the literature (Fehr and Gächter, 2000, 2002; Falk et al., 2005; Chaudhuri, 2011)—OT also shows a positive effect on cooperation, irrespective of the availability of a sanctioning mechanism.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Fehr and Gächter, 2000, 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Falk et al., 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Chaudhuri, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Our data suggests no interaction effect between inhaled OT and the presence of a punishment option, which would be expected if inhaled OT increased the accuracy of first order beliefs.

    “Our data suggests no interaction effect between inhaled OT and the presence of a punishment option, which would be expected if inhaled OT increased the accuracy of first order beliefs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study used a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled between-subjects design.

    “To examine the effect of oxytocin on altruistic punishment in a social dilemma situation, we employed a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled between-subjects design”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Inhaled oxytocin constitutes a reliable and harmless way to manipulate participants' oxytocin brain levels.

    “A recent meta-analysis by Valstad et al. (2017) confirmed that inhaled OT constitutes a reliable and harmless way to manipulate participants’ OT brain levels.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Valstad et al. (2017) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The oxytocin literature has relatively poor replicability, partly due to small sample sizes.

    “However, several recent reviews identified relatively poor replicability within the OT literature (Nave et al., 2015; Leng and Ludwig, 2016; Walum et al., 2016), which partly arises from small sample sizes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Nave et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Leng and Ludwig, 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Walum et al., 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Analyses were conducted on all 144 participants.

    “Analyses were conducted on all 144 participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin amplifies negative social emotions like envy and schadenfreude evoked by unfair money allocations.

    “and to amplify negative social emotions like envy and schadenfreude evoked by unfair money allocations (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All games involved real monetary stakes.

    “All games involved real monetary stakes (denoted MU for ‘monetary units’ in the following and converted to euro amounts after the experiment).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Feedback on other group members' decisions and payoff in PDGX was only given at the end of the entire experiment to avoid learning or spillover effects.

    “Feedback on the other group members’ decisions and on the payoff from PDGX was only given at the end of the entire experiment in order to avoid learning or spillover effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Participants were randomly and anonymously assigned to groups of three to exclude strategic or reputational concerns.

    “To exclude strategic or reputational concerns, participants were randomly and anonymously assigned to groups of three in both treatments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Control questions ensured that participants understood the payoff structure.

    “In both treatments PDGX and PDGS, we made sure, with control questions, that participants understood the payoff structure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin enhances a general ethnocentric bias.

    “to enhance a general ethnocentric bias (De Dreu et al., 2011)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites De Dreu et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    A rational and selfish agent with rational expectations would prefer defecting in the placebo condition and cooperating in the OT condition.

    “Assuming rational expectations, a rational and selfish agent would therefore prefer to defect in the placebo condition.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · hedged
      “Consequently, a rational and selfish decision-maker would prefer cooperating in the OT but not in the placebo condition.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “Consequently, a selfish agent with rational expectations would be better off defecting in the placebo condition and better off cooperating in the OT condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Agents have rational expectations.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Decision-makers are rational and selfish.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    OT contributes to the efficiency of sanctioning mechanisms predominantly by increasing the inclination to punish, and indirectly by increasing the likelihood of cooperation.

    “This implies that OT contributes to the efficiency of sanctioning mechanisms predominantly by increasing the inclination to punish, and indirectly by increasing the likelihood of cooperation.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
      “Our results additionally imply that inhaled OT contributes to the efficiency of sanctioning mechanisms directly by increasing the inclination to punish uncooperative behavior and indirectly by increasing the overall likelihood of cooperation.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
      “This general increase in the inclination to cooperate may indirectly contribute to the efficiency of a sanctioning mechanism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Endogenous oxytocin release in the rodent brain correlates with aggression in mate-guarding behavior and with maternal aggression in defending offspring against intruders.

    “This more differentiated view is also supported by animal studies showing that endogenous OT release in the rodent brain correlates with aggression in mate-guarding behavior (Bales and Carter, 2003) and with maternal aggression in defending offspring against intruders (Bosch, 2005; Bosch and Neumann, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bales and Carter, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bosch, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bosch and Neumann, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin has been shown to promote cooperation within groups but not between them.

    “OT has been shown to promote cooperation within groups but not between them (Dreu et al., 2010)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dreu et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A recent systematic review found no evidence that trust behavior is associated with oxytocin.

    “For instance, a recent systematic review of the oxytocin literature found no evidence that trust behavior is associated with oxytocin (Nave et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nave et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    OT might have an amplifying effect on social emotions, including negative, which ultimately triggers the punishment of defective behavior and leads to the enforcement of social norms.

    “our data suggests that OT might have an amplifying effect on social emotions, including negative, which ultimately triggers the punishment of defective behavior and leads to the enforcement of social norms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin has been shown to increase dishonesty.

    “to increase dishonesty (Shalvi and De Dreu, 2014; Aydogan et al., 2017)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Shalvi and De Dreu, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Aydogan et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    OT triggers aggressive behavior to protect the in-group's welfare, either against threats from outside or from within.

    “Together, these results paint a broader picture, in which OT triggers aggressive behavior to protect the in-group’s welfare, either against threats from outside or from within.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The oxytonergic system plays a crucial role in the modulation of behavior with the purpose to ultimately increase a social group’s welfare, which is likely rooted in the ultimate goal to enhance the group’s chances of survival.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT enhances in-group conformity, in-group favoritism, and group-serving dishonesty.

    “This notion is also supported by studies showing that OT enhances in-group conformity (Stallen et al., 2012), in-group favoritism (De Dreu et al., 2010, 2011) and group-serving dishonesty (Shalvi and De Dreu, 2014), all of which also serves group welfare.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Stallen et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites De Dreu et al., 2010, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Shalvi and De Dreu, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Inhaled OT improves the accuracy of first order beliefs by enhancing one's ability to 'put oneself emotionally in the shoes of another person'.

    “Some evidence also suggests that inhaled OT improves the accuracy of first order beliefs by enhancing one’s ability to ‘put oneself emotionally in the shoes of another person’ (Domes et al., 2007; Hollander et al., 2007; Averbeck, 2010; Guastella et al., 2010; Pedersen et al., 2011; Schulze et al., 2011; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Domes et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hollander et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Averbeck, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Higher cooperation rates would render the total costs of norm enforcement significantly lower and therefore lead to higher aggregated payoffs within the group.

    “That is, since fewer sanctioning incidents would be required to achieve the same level of cooperation within a group, higher cooperation rates would render the total costs of norm enforcement significantly lower and therefore lead to higher aggregated payoffs within the group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Participants treated with OT show a higher inclination to deter uncooperative behavior, which transforms the cooperation incentives from a classical prisoner's dilemma into a coordination game.

    “We therefore conclude that participants treated with OT show a higher inclination to deter uncooperative behavior, which transforms the cooperation incentives from a classical prisoner’s dilemma into a coordination game (Fehr and Schmidt, 1999; Fehr and Gächter, 2000, 2002; Fehr and Fischbacher, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Fehr and Schmidt, 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Fehr and Gächter, 2000, 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Fehr and Fischbacher, 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

28 of 28

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Inhaled oxytocin may amplify negative emotions (e.g., anger) toward defectors and therefore increase the inclination to enforce the norm of cooperation.

    “In building upon studies suggesting that OT is associated with social emotions like envy and schadenfreude in unfair money allocations (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009), it is straightforward to assume that inhaled OT may amplify negative emotions (e.g. ‘anger’) toward defectors and therefore increase the inclination to enforce the norm of cooperation.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Agents have rational expectations.

    “Assuming rational expectations, a rational and selfish agent would therefore prefer to defect in the placebo condition.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Decision-makers are rational and selfish.

    “Assuming rational expectations, a rational and selfish agent would therefore prefer to defect in the placebo condition.”
    “Consequently, a rational and selfish decision-maker would prefer cooperating in the OT but not in the placebo condition.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The oxytonergic system plays a crucial role in the modulation of behavior with the purpose to ultimately increase a social group’s welfare, which is likely rooted in the ultimate goal to enhance the group’s chances of survival.

    “Whether the threat is internal or external, it is straightforward to assume that the oxytonergic system plays a crucial role in the modulation of behavior with the purpose to ultimately increase a social group’s welfare, which is likely rooted in the ultimate goal to enhance the group’s chances of survival.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Oxytocin has been implicated in many social behaviors, from promoting trust, generosity and cooperation to aggravating mistrust and aggressive behavior.

    “Oxytocin has been implicated in many social behaviors, from promoting trust, generosity and cooperation 21,22,46,47 to aggravating mistrust and aggressive behavior 48,49 .”

    From Oxytocin modulates social value representations in the amygdala (2019) · cites this paper as [46]

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentz = -0.578reported p = .563 · recomputed p = .563

    “z = −0.578, p = .5630”

  • Consistentz = -2.334reported p = .0196 · recomputed p = .020

    “z = −2.334, p = .0196”

  • Consistentz = -2.701reported p = .007 · recomputed p = .007

    “z = −2.701, p = .007”

  • Consistentz = -1.8reported p = .0718 · recomputed p = .072

    “z = −1.800, p = .0718”

  • Consistentz = 1.86reported p = .0629 · recomputed p = .063

    “z = 1.860, p = .0629”

5 of 5

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • OT cooperation is not always the higher-payoff choice

    Minor

    The discussion says participants in the OT condition would always be better off cooperating. Table 3 shows the opposite when both other players defect (20 MU for defecting versus 12 MU for cooperating) and when one other player cooperates (27.5 versus 20.14 MU).

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Dreu, 2010, The neuropeptide oxytocin regulates parochial altruism in intergroup conflict among humans, Science, 328, 1408, 10.1126/science.1189047 · DOI · Paper page

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Aydogan, G., Furtner, N. C., Kern, B., Jobst, A., Müller, N., & Kocher, M. G.
Affiliations
  • Arizona State University (US)
  • Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
  • Institut für Höhere Studien - Institute for Advanced Studies (IHS) (AT)
Corresponding author
Aydogan, Gökhan
ORCID
Venue
Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2017-08-29
Volume
12
Issue
11
Pages
1740-1747
ISSN
  • 1749-5016 (ISSN-L)
  • 1749-5024
DOI
10.1093/scan/nsx101
PMC
PMC5714236
OpenAlex
W2754488867
Cited by
25
References
44
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 1
FWCI
2.73
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Institutional Repository (IHS Vienna) (acceptedVersion)
  • Munich Reprints in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Social Sciences › Safety Research › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
Keywords
oxytocin, altruistic punishment, free-riding, cooperation, social dilemmas, anger, social emotions, norm enforcement, group cohesion, neuromodulators
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Altruism, Cooperative Behavior, Double-Blind Method, Emotions, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Oxytocin, Punishment, Social Behavior, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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