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Intranasal Administration of Oxytocin Increases Envy and Schadenfreude (Gloating)
Abstract
Background Humans have a strong social tendency to compare themselves with others. We tend to feel envious when we receive less valuable rewards and may rejoice when our payoffs are more advantageous. Envy and schadenfreude (gloating over the other's misfortune) are social emotions widely agreed to be a symptom of the human social tendency to compare one's payoffs with those of others. Given the important social components of envy and gloating, we speculated that oxytocin may have a modulating effect on the intensity of these emotions. Methods Fifty-six participants participated in this double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subject study. Following the administration of oxytocin or a placebo, participants played a game of chance with another (fake) participant who either won more money (envy manipulation), lost more money (schadenfreude manipulation), or won/lost equal amounts of money. Results In comparison with the placebo, oxytocin increased the envy ratings during unequal monetary gain conditions involving relative loss (when the participant gained less money than another player). Oxytocin also increased the ratings of gloating during relative gain conditions (when the participant gained more money than the other player). By contrast, oxytocin had no effect on the emotional ratings following equal monetary gains nor did it affect general mood ratings. Conclusions These results suggest that the oxytocinergic system is involved in modulating envy and gloating. Thus, contrary to the prevailing belief that this system is involved solely in positive prosocial behaviors, it probably plays a key role in a wider range of social emotion-related behaviors.
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In the citing paper
“All of our hypotheses were derived from the three major behavioral IN-OT theories (i.e., OT as a hormone of affiliation (16); OT as a hormone of social salience(15)and OT as a hormone of social approach (17)).”
From Is there a Publication Bias in Behavioural Intranasal Oxytocin Research on Humans? Opening the File Drawer of One Laboratory (2016) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Evidence for this possibility would be consistent with work showing that oxytocin in non-human mammals promotes territoriality and aggression toward intruders (25–27) and with studies showing that humans given oxytocin display more schadenfreude when interpersonal competition is lost and more gloating when interpersonal competition is won (28).”
From Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism (2011) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Increasing evidence suggests that the oxytocinergic system is involved in modulating multiple social emotions that are either positively (e.g., empathy, Sheng et al., 2013) or negatively (e.g., schadenfreude, Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009) related to social behaviors.”
From A neurobiological association of revenge propensity during intergroup conflict (2020) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“The finding that cooperative behavior can be negatively influenced by OT in certain conditions is consistent with recent research pointing to other anti-social effects of OT, such as parochialism and out-group aggression (De Dreu et al., 2010, 2011), increased envy and schadenfreude (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009) and decreased generosity towards strangers (Radke and de Bruijn, 2010).”
From The effect of oxytocin on cooperation in a prisoner's dilemma depends on the social context and a person's social value orientation (2014) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“suggesting a potential direct OT involvement in processes of social bonding and interpersonal closeness, as well as in other social and emotional behaviors (25).”
From Oxytocin and the development of parenting in humans (2010) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“Further, oxytocin did not improve social cooperation when social partners were perceived to be untrustworthy (Mikolajczak et al., 2010a), uncooperative (Declerck et al., 2010), or antagonistic (Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009; but see Baumgartner et al. 2008 for an exception).”
From Acute intranasal oxytocin improves positive self-perceptions of personality (2012) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009
In the citing paper
“Researchers have found that OT increases cooperation and trust in others, but also envy and gloating during the experience of loss and defensive responses and punishment for the out-group during threatening conditions (De Dreu et al. 2010; Kosfeld et al. 2005; Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009).”
From A precision medicine approach to oxytocin trials (2017) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009
In the citing paper
“Researchers found that IN-OT increases cooperation and social trust in others (Kosfeld et al. 2005), increases envy and schadenfreude in situations of loss (Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009), enhances mind-reading capacities (Domes et al. 2007b), increases memory for faces (Rimmele et al. 2009), and improves emotion recognition (Schulze et al. 2011).”
From A precision medicine approach to oxytocin trials (2017) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009
In the citing paper
“Since the publication of this study, increasing evidence suggests that OT's function is not always consistent with facilitating social approach, but that administering intranasal OT can also lead to parochial, competitive, and envious behaviors and behaviors that appear to be driven by schadenfreude 16,17,32 , which have an anti-social dimension.”
From A registered replication study on oxytocin and trust (2020) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“The social salience hypothesis, a recent leading hypotheses about the mechanism underlying the social effects of OT, has attempted to explain these conflicting reports by suggesting that OT alters the perceptual salience and/or the processing of social cues (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009;Bartz et al., 2011).”
From OT promotes closer interpersonal distance among highly empathic individuals (2015) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“Yet OT does not always promote approach behaviors, and has been shown to be dependent both on context and on individual differences.For example, in some contexts OT has been shown to promote risk aversion (Declerck et al., 2010), envy (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009) and lack of cooperation with perceived out-group members (De Dreu et al., 2010).”
From OT promotes closer interpersonal distance among highly empathic individuals (2015) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“and to amplify negative social emotions like envy and schadenfreude evoked by unfair money allocations (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009).”
From Oxytocin promotes altruistic punishment (2017) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“This notion is supported by recent findings, indicating that OT can increase other emotions considered negative, like envy or gloating (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009).”
From Oxytocin promotes altruistic punishment (2017) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“In contrast, Shamay-Tsoory et al. (2009) reported increases in evaluation of both negative and positive feelings induced by a monetary task.”
From Oxytocin enhances pupil dilation and sensitivity to 'hidden' emotional expressions (2013) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al. (2009)
In the citing paper
“recent studies suggest it also increases envy and gloating [6]”
From A direct examination of the effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on approach-avoidance motor responses to emotional stimuli (2013) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“One theory put forward to explain OT's effects on social cognition suggests that OT simply renders socially relevant stimuli more salient [6].”
From A direct examination of the effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on approach-avoidance motor responses to emotional stimuli (2013) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“findings showing that it also increases negative inter-personal and inter-group judgments have led to a re-evaluation of its role in social cognition [6].”
From A direct examination of the effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on approach-avoidance motor responses to emotional stimuli (2013) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“it can also promote aversive avoidance behavior by increasing envy and schadenfreude (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009), ethnocentrism (e.g., trust and empathy; De Dreu et al., 2010; Sheng et al., 2013), group-serving dishonesty (Shalvi and De Dreu, 2014), and noncooperation (Bartz et al., 2011; De Dreu et al., 2012).”
From Oxytocin facilitates approach behavior to positive social stimuli via decreasing anterior insula activity (2018) · cites this paper as Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009
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“On the other hand, different studies have also suggested that OT increases antisocial behaviors, such as envy (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009) and aggression (Ne’eman, Perach-Barzilay, CONTACT Daniela Cohen daniela.ddd172@gmail.com Department of Psychology, University of Haifa 199 Aba Khoushy Ave.…”
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Pfundmair, M., Reinelt, A., DeWall, C. N., & Feldmann, L. (2018) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.04.025 · Cited by 22
“Whereas literature is inconsistent with regard to gender differences resulting from exogenous OT (e.g., Rilling et al., 2014; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009), research has consistently shown similar aggression levels in males and females under provocation (Bettencourt and Miller, 1996), which is why we did not expect diff…”
Oxytocin and the Biopsychology of Performance in Team Sports
Pepping, G., & Timmermans, E. J. (2012) · The Scientific World JOURNAL · doi:10.1100/2012/567363 · Cited by 24
“[63] examined the effect of oxytocin on envy and gloating.”
BackgroundInfluentialOxytocin enhances neural approach towards social and non-social stimuli of high personal relevance
Alaerts, K., Taillieu, A., Daniëls, N., Soriano, J. R., & Prinsen, J. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-02914-8 · Cited by 21
“The subjective ratings allowed obtaining for each participant: (1) a person-dependent scoring of the perceived social nature of the presented stimuli, as well as (2) the stimuli’s perceived emotional evocativeness in terms of negative/positive valence.”
BackgroundInfluentialOxytocin: Coevolution of human and domesticated animals
Herbeck, Y. E., Gulevich, R. G., Shepeleva, D. V., & Grinevich, V. (2017) · Russian Journal of Genetics Applied Research · doi:10.1134/s2079059717030042 · Cited by 18
The role of D2 dopamine receptors in oxytocin induced place preference and anxiolytic effect
László, K., Péczely, L., Géczi, F., Kovács, A., Zagoracz, O., Ollmann, T., Kertes, E., Kállai, V., László, B., Berta, B., et al. (2020) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104777 · Cited by 18
“OT can also promote anti-social behaviour by increasing envy and gloating (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009).”
Oxytocin, Empathy and Human Enhancement
Lara, F. (2017) · THEORIA An International Journal for Theory History and Foundations of Science · doi:10.1387/theoria.17890 · Cited by 19
Ramsey, M. E., Fry, D., & Cummings, M. E. (2019) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.03.001 · Cited by 15
“Originally conceived to explain the complex action of OT in humans (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009; Declerck et al., 2010), the social salience hypothesis of oxytocin synthesizes OT's multiple roles in prosocial/”
BackgroundMaking Sense of Computational Psychiatry
Mujica-Parodi, L. R., & Strey, H. H. (2020) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyaa013 · Cited by 20
“Oxytocin does sometimes appear to increase trust and altruism, but it also sometimes appears to decrease them (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009; De Dreu et al., 2010, 2011; Bartz et al., 2011; Grillon et al., 2013; Ne’eman et al., 2016); indeed, many of the same results used to justify the “trust” role are equally consisten…”
ResultLevin, S. B. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190051495.001.0001 · Cited by 18
O’Connell, G., Whalley, H. C., Mukherjee, P., Stanfield, A. C., Montag, C., Hall, J., & Reuter, M. (2012) · Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science · doi:10.4236/jbbs.2012.21007 · Cited by 17
“A recent important study shows that oxytocin also produces non-prosocial effects, such as increased gloating and envy [7].”
BackgroundThe role of oxytocin in modulating interpersonal space: A pharmacological fMRI study
Cohen, D., Perry, A., Gilam, G., Mayseless, N., Gonen, T., Hendler, T., & Shamay‐Tsoory, S. (2016) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.10.021 · Cited by 19
Self-citationThe Everyday Moral Judge – Autobiographical Recollections of Moral Emotions
Körner, A., Tscharaktschiew, N., Schindler, R., Schulz, K., & Rudolph, U. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0167224 · Cited by 18
Yu, H., Nan, W., Yang, G., Li, Q., Wu, H., & Liu, X. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.01162 · Cited by 17
Taubert, J., Flessert, M., Liu, N., & Ungerleider, L. G. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51422-3 · Cited by 17
Oxytocin, Social Salience, and Social Approach
Shamay‐Tsoory, S. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.11.020 · Cited by 15
Self-citationEconomic Decisions for Others Are More Favorable for Close Than Distant Clients
Ruessmann, J. K., & Topolinski, S. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167219858640 · Cited by 16
“Accordingly, participants experience strong envy in the laboratory when another ostensible participant wins more money in a game of chance than themselves (Dvash, Gilam, Ben-Ze’ev, Hendler, & Shamay-Tsoory, 2010; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009).”
BackgroundFukai, M., Hirosawa, T., Kikuchi, M., Ouchi, Y., Takahashi, T., Yoshimura, Y., Miyagishi, Y., Kosaka, H., Yokokura, M., Yoshikawa, E., et al. (2017) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2017.06.015 · Cited by 15
“…a few published reports have described that OT causes anti-social effects in certain situations (Bartz et al., 2011a; De Dreu et al., 2010); (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009), large amounts of evidence indicating OT effects on prosociality and social cognition have been accumulated (Bartz et…”
BackgroundGiulio, P. (2020) · Archives of Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.17352/2455-5460.000043 · Cited by 15
“Other possible contraindications detected during an excessive presence of oxytocin in the organism concern: envious and rancorous behaviors, as shown by a research by the University of Haifa [51]; learning and memory defi cits [52]; immoral behavior and against social laws [53]; prejudicial conduct towards a subject o…”
BackgroundZheng, X., & Kendrick, K. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.652473 · Cited by 17
“While some studies have reported that intranasal oxytocin can increase envy in non-romantic contexts (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009) and reduce forgiveness of trust betrayal in women but not men (Yao et al.”
BackgroundIntegrative neurocognitive mechanism of empathy and counter-empathy
Fu, D., Qi, Y., Wu, H., & Liu, X. (2017) · Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version) · doi:10.1360/n972016-01108 · Cited by 14
Oxytocin effects on self-referential processing: behavioral and neuroimaging evidence
Liu, Y., Wu, B., Wang, X., Li, W., Zhang, T., Wu, X., & Han, S. (2017) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsx116 · Cited by 15
“For instance, in an economic game, OT vs placebo administration increased feelings of both envy, when a participant gained less money than others, and gloating, when a participant gained more money than others (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009).”
BackgroundOxytocin reduces the link between neural and affective responses after social exclusion
Petereit, P., Rinn, C., Stemmler, G., & Mueller, E. M. (2019) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.05.002 · Cited by 15
Riem, M. M. E., Kunst, L. E., & Kop, W. J. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.057 · Cited by 17
Guoynes, C. D., & Marler, C. A. (2021) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.113773 · Cited by 13
Oxytocin promotes species-relevant outgroup attention in bonobos and chimpanzees
Brooks, J., Kano, F., Kawaguchi, Y., & Yamamoto, S. (2022) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105182 · Cited by 13
Fam, J. P., Holmes, N. M., Delaney, A., Crane, J. W., & Westbrook, R. F. (2018) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.06.006 · Cited by 14
Eye-Tracking Reveals a Role of Oxytocin in Attention Allocation Towards Familiar Faces
Marsh, N., Scheele, D., Postin, D., Onken, M., & Hurlemann, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.629760 · Cited by 13
“For example, it has been found that OXT increases envy and gloating (40), decreases the tendency to cooperate in individuals with borderline personality disorder (41), and selectively increases the pleasantness of interpersonal touch in individuals scoring low in autistic-like traits (42).”
BackgroundOxytocin, Functions, Uses and Abuses: A Brief Review
Assad, N. I., Pandey, A. K., & Sharma, L. M. (2016) · Theriogenology Insight - An International Journal of Reproduction in all Animals · doi:10.5958/2277-3371.2016.00001.2 · Cited by 13
Kim, H. W., Kang, J. I., An, S. K., & Kim, S. J. (2018) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/cns.13075 · Cited by 13
Depressive symptoms and social context modulate oxytocin’s effect on negative memory recall
Wong, S. F., Cardoso, C., Orlando, M. A., Brown, C. A., & Ellenbogen, M. A. (2021) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsab072 · Cited by 14
“Some studies also reported increased feelings of envy (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009), mistrust (Declerck et al.”
BackgroundThe social neuroscience and the theory of integrative levels
Bello‐Morales, R., & Delgado-Garcia, J. M. (2015) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2015.00054 · Cited by 14
Your word is my command: Oxytocin facilitates the understanding of appeal in verbal communication
Pfundmair, M., Lamprecht, F., von Wedemeyer, F. M., et al. (2016) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.07.213 · Cited by 13
Lin, H., & Liang, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769826 · Cited by 15
Pedersen, C. A. (2014) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2014.01.050 · Cited by 11
Connor, M., Lawrence, A. B., & Brown, S. M. (2018) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani8080140 · Cited by 10
Oxytocin modulates mate-guarding behavior in marmoset monkeys
Cavanaugh, J., Mustoe, A. C., Womack, S. L., & French, J. A. (2018) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.10.009 · Cited by 13
A blueprint for research on Shankopathies: A view from research on autism spectrum disorder
Carbonetto, S. (2013) · Developmental Neurobiology · doi:10.1002/dneu.22150 · Cited by 13
“In humans, similar negative effects have also been reported (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009; De Dreu et al., 2011; Stallen et al., 2012).”
BackgroundGoodyear, K., Lee, M. R., O’Hara, M., Chernyak, S. V., Walter, H., Parasuraman, R., & Krüeger, F. (2015) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2015.1037463 · Cited by 11
“…involved with facial expressions (Domes, Steiner, Porges, & Heinrichs, 2013), increases social salience for agents through promoting emotions such as envy (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009) and influences processing of socially relevant cues in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Groppe et al., 2013).”
BackgroundSauer, C., Montag, C., Reuter, M., & Kirsch, P. (2019) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.06.005 · Cited by 13
Intranasal oxytocin drives coordinated social approach
Monari, P. K., Rieger, N. S., Schefelker, J., & Marler, C. A. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-97468-0 · Cited by 13
Interactive Effects Between Extraversion and Oxytocin Administration
Human, L. J., Thorson, K. R., & Mendes, W. B. (2016) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550616644964 · Cited by 12
“Other experimental work with intranasal OT in humans has consistently utilized an absorption period ranging between 40 and 50 min (Heinrichs, Baumgartner, Kirschbaum, & Ehlert, 2003; Kosfeld et al., 2005; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009); we therefore assessed social outcomes at least 40 min postadministration.”
ERP Effects of Malicious Envy on Schadenfreude in Gain and Loss Frames
Lin, H., & Liang, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.663055 · Cited by 12
Moral Enhancement: What Is It and Do We Want It?
Pacholczyk, A. (2011) · Law Innovation and Technology · doi:10.5235/175799611798204879 · Cited by 11
Oxytocin as an allostatic agent in the social bonding effects of music
Hansen, N. C., & Keller, P. E. (2021) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x20001235 · Cited by 11
Pereira, A. R., Antunes, J., Trotter, P. D., McGlone, F. P., González-Villar, A. J., & Sampaio, A. (2023) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.14960 · Cited by 10
“In this line, the role of oxytocin stands out, since is related to decreased stress responses and can increase the prominence of socially relevant cues, or promote approach behaviour in social interactions, thus also being context-dependent (Cascio, Moore & McGlone, 2019; Kemp & Guastella, 2011; Shamay-Tsoory et al.,…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., Fischer, M., Dvash, J., Harari, H., Perach-Bloom, N., & Levkovitz, Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Haifa (IL)
- Shalvata Mental Health Center (IL)
- Venue
- Biological Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-11
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 864-870
- ISSN
- 0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2095144882
- Cited by
- 542
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 46 · 2012: 28
- FWCI
- 10.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Keywords
- oxytocin, envy, schadenfreude, social emotions, intranasal administration, social comparison, oxytocinergic system, prosocial behavior
- MeSH terms
- Administration, Intranasal, Adult, Emotions, Female, Humans, Male, Oxytocin, Reward, Social Behavior
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