Treatment effect on biases in size estimation in spider phobia
Abstract
Background The current study investigates biases in size estimations made by spider-phobic and healthy participants before and after treatment.Method Forty-one spider-phobic and 20 healthy participants received virtual reality (VR) exposure treatment and were then asked to rate the size of a real spider immediately before and, on average, 15days after the treatment. During the VR exposure treatment skin conductance response was assessed.Results Prior to the treatment, both groups tended to overestimate the size of the spider, but this size estimation bias was significantly larger in the phobic group than in the control group. The VR exposure treatment reduced this bias, which was reflected in a significantly smaller size rating post treatment. However, the size estimation bias was unrelated to the skin conductance response.Conclusion Our results confirm the hypothesis that size estimation by spider-phobic patients is biased. This bias is not stable over time and can be decreased with adequate treatment.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Size estimation is biased in spider phobia, but this bias is corrected with exposure therapy.
“and they showed that size estimation is biased in spider phobia, but this bias is corrected with exposure therapy.”
From Recent Progress in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Phobias: A Systematic Review (2017) · cites this paper as [77]
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,841 · see citing works
Fears, phobias, and preparedness: toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning
Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.483 · Cited by 3,147 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This might be explained by biological preparedness or socialization, which could also directly cause a size estimation bias (Cornelius & Averill, 1983; Öhman & Mineka, 2001).”
BackgroundEmotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass.
Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.466 · Cited by 2,542 · see citing works
Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass.
Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. G. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.130.3.466 · Cited by 2,527 · see citing works
At what sample size do correlations stabilize?
Schönbrodt, F. D., & Perugini, M. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.05.009 · Cited by 2,232 · see citing works
Do threatening stimuli draw or hold visual attention in subclinical anxiety?
Fox, E., Russo, R., Bowles, R., & Dutton, K. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.4.681 · Cited by 1,469 · see citing works
Adjusting for multiple testing when reporting research results: the Bonferroni vs Holm methods.
Aickin, M., & Gensler, H. (1996) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.86.5.726 · Cited by 1,346 · see citing works
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Preedy, V., & Watson, R. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78665-0_5485 · Cited by 1,146 · see citing works
Demmel, R. (1999) · Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1026//0084-5345.28.1.68 · Cited by 1,010 · see citing works
Attentional bias for threat: evidence for delayed disengagement from emotional faces
Fox, E., Russo, R., & Dutton, K. (2002) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930143000527 · Cited by 954 · see citing works
Virtual reality in the treatment of spider phobia: a controlled study
Garcia-Palacios, A., Hoffman, H., Carlin, A., Furness, T. A., & Botella, C. (2002) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00068-7 · Cited by 490 · see citing works
Colour naming of phobia‐related words
Watts, F., MCKENNA, F. P., Sharrock, R., & Trezise, L. (1986) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1986.tb01985.x · Cited by 452 · see citing works
Automatic processing in spider phobia: Implicit fear associations over the course of treatment.
Teachman, B. A., & Woody, S. R. (2003) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.112.1.100 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
“Top-Down” Effects Where None Should Be Found
Firestone, C., & Scholl, B. J. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797613485092 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Time course of attentional bias for fear-relevant pictures in spider-fearful individuals
Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.05.003 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Effect of multiple context exposure on renewal in spider phobia
Shiban, Y., Pauli, P., & Mühlberger, A. (2013) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2012.10.007 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Self-citationSkating down a Steeper Slope: Fear Influences the Perception of Geographical Slant
Stefanucci, J. K., Proffítt, D. R., Clore, G. L., & Parekh, N. (2008) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p5796 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Pineles, S. L., Orr, M. R., & Orr, S. P. (2009) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00852.x · Cited by 149 · see citing works
putting to a bigger hole: Golf performance relates to perceived size
Witt, J. K., Linkenauger, S. A., Bakdash, J. Z., & Proffítt, D. R. (2008) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/pbr.15.3.581 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
A new mode of fear expression: perceptual bias in height fear
Teachman, B. A., Stefanucci, J. K., Clerkin, E. M., Cody, M. W., & Proffitt, D. R. (2008) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.2.296 · Cited by 144 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Therefore, we predict that there is a size estimation bias in both groups, as Teachman et al. (2008) also found an estimation bias in less fearful participants.”
ResultShiban, Y., Schelhorn, I., Pauli, P., & Mühlberger, A. (2015) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2015.05.014 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Self-citationde Jong, P. J., & Muris, P. (2002) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0887-6185(01)00089-5 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
The looming of spiders: The fearful perceptual distortion of movement and menace
Riskind, J. H., Moore, R., & Bowley, L. (1995) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)e0023-c · Cited by 101 · see citing works
When spiders appear suddenly: Spider-phobic patients are distracted by task-irrelevant spiders
Gerdes, A. B. M., Alpers, G. W., & Pauli, P. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.10.010 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Self-citationIt was as big as my head, I swear!
Vasey, M. W., Vilensky, M. R., Heath, J. H., Harbaugh, C. N., Buffington, A. G., & Fázio, R. H. (2011) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.08.009 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Harber, K. D., Yeung, D., & Iacovelli, A. (2011) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0023995 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Sex differences in fear of spiders.
Cornelius, R. R., & Averill, J. R. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.2.377 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Mühlberger, A., Wiedemann, G., Herrmann, M. J., & Pauli, P. (2006) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.115.3.580 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationDavey, G. C. L., & Dixon, A. L. (1996) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(96)88487-7 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Imagery and fear influence height perception
Clerkin, E. M., Cody, M. W., Stefanucci, J. K., Proffitt, D. R., & Teachman, B. A. (2009) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.12.002 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Rachman, S., & Cuk, M. (1992) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(92)90003-y · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Varying expectancies and attention bias in phobic and non-phobic individuals
Aue, T., Guex, R., Chauvigné, L. A. S., & Okon‐Singer, H. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00418 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Cisler, J. M., Ries, B. J., & Widner, R. L. (2007) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.10.011 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Aue, T., Hoeppli, M., Piguet, C., Virginie Sterpenich, A., & Vuilleumier, P. O. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00194 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Okon‐Singer, H., Alyagon, U., Kofman, O., Tzelgov, J., & Henik, A. (2010) · Stress · doi:10.3109/10253890.2010.527401 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Plunging into the Pool of Death: Imagining a Dangerous Outcome Influences Distance Perception
Stefanucci, J. K., Gagnon, K. T., Tompkins, C. L., & Bullock, K. E. (2012) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p7131 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
A balancing act: Physical balance, through arousal, influences size perception
Geuss, M. N., Stefanucci, J. K., Benedictis-Kessner, J. D., & Stevens, N. R. (2010) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/app.72.7.1890 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Brain systems underlying encounter expectancy bias in spider phobia
Aue, T., Hoeppli, M., Piguet, C., Hofstetter, C., Rieger, S. W., & Vuilleumier, P. O. (2015) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-015-0339-6 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Moritz, S., Alpers, G. W., Schilling, L., Jelinek, L., Brooks, A., Willenborg, B., & Nagel, M. (2011) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.05.002 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Virtual Reality in the Assessment, Understanding, and Treatment of Mental Health Disorders
Freeman, D., Reeve, S., Robinson, A., Ehlers, A., Clark, D., Spanlang, B., & Slater, M. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329171700040x · Cited by 1,428 · see citing works
Recent Progress in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Phobias: A Systematic Review
Botella, C., Fernández-Álvarez, J., Guillén, V., García-Palacios, A., & Baños, R. (2017) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-017-0788-4 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
Virtual reality in the diagnostic and therapy for mental disorders: A systematic review
Wiebe, A., Kannen, K., Selaskowski, B., Mehren, A., Thöne, A.-K., Pramme, L., Blumenthal, N., Li, M., Asché, L., Jonas, S., et al. (2022) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102213 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Head-mounted virtual reality and mental health: critical review of current research
Jerdan, S. W., Grindle, M., van Woerden, H. C., & Kamel Boulos, M. N. (2018) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/games.9226 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Perceiving the World Through Group-Colored Glasses: A Perceptual Model of Intergroup Relations
Xiao, Y. J., Coppin, G., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2016) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2016.1199221 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Opportunities and Challenges of Virtual Reality in Healthcare – A Domain Experts Inquiry
Halbig, A., Babu, S. K., Gatter, S., Latoschik, M. E., Brukamp, K., & von Mammen, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2022.837616 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
The influence of subcortical shortcuts on disordered sensory and cognitive processing.
McFadyen, J., Dolan, R. J., & Garrido, M. I. (2020) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-020-0287-1 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Herz, N., Baror, S., & Bar, M. (2020) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2019.12.015 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The role of attention bias to threat in anxiety: mechanisms, modulators and open questions
Okon-Singer, H. (2018) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.09.008 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Kritikos, I., Alevizopoulos, G. A., & Koutsouris, D. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.596980 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Biased estimations of interpersonal distance in non-clinical social anxiety
Givon‐Benjio, N., & Okon‐Singer, H. (2019) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2019.102171 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Men Scare Me More: Gender Differences in Social Fear Conditioning in Virtual Reality
Reichenberger, J., Pfaller, M. A., Forster, D., Gerczuk, J., Shiban, Y., & Mühlberger, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01617 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationGivon‐Benjio, N., Oren‐Yagoda, R., Aderka, I. M., & Okon‐Singer, H. (2020) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23086 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Subliminal Impending Collision Increases Perceived Object Size and Enhances Pupillary Light Reflex
Chen, L., Yuan, X., Xu, Q., Wang, Y., & Jiang, Y. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01897 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Riskind, J. H. (2024) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-024-10481-1 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Clinical applications of virtual reality in patient-centered care
Pandita, S., & Won, A. S. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816958-2.00007-1 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Basanovic, J., Dean, L., Riskind, J. H., & MacLeod, C. (2018) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-9970-1 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Moderate physical activity alters the estimation of time, but not space
Tonelli, A., Lunghi, C., & Gori, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1004504 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Reducing avoidance in adults with high spider fear using perceptual discrimination training
Ginat‐Frolich, R., Klein, Z., Aderka, I. M., & Shechner, T. (2019) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22930 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Low-spatial-frequency bias in context-dependent visual size perception
Chen, L., Qiao, C., & Jiang, Y. (2018) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/18.8.2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
My own face looks larger than yours: A self-induced illusory size perception
Zhang, Y., Wang, L., & Jiang, Y. (2021) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104718 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Perception of interpersonal distance and social distancing before and during COVID-19 pandemic
Givon‐Benjio, N., Sokolover, H., Aderka, I. M., Hadad, B., & Okon‐Singer, H. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-55218-y · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Xiao, Y. J., Coppin, G., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2016) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2016.1237822 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Interpreting and responding to ambiguous natural images in spider phobia
Haberkamp, A., Schmidt, F., Biafora, M., & Schmidt, T. (2019) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2019.101495 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Threat shapes visual context sensitivity selectively through low-spatial-frequency channels
Hu, X., Feng, B., Chen, L., & Luo, W. (2022) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105305 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Freize, V. V., Malyshko, L. V., Grachev, G. I., Борисович, Д. В., Semenova, N. V., & Незнанов, Н. Г. (2021) · V M BEKHTEREV REVIEW OF PSYCHIATRY AND MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.31363/2313-7053-2021-1-18-24 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Li, S. H., & Graham, B. M. (2021) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102456 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Riskind, J. H., & Calvete, E. (2023) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-023-10370-z · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ben-Baruch, Y. D., Leibovich, T., & Cohen, N. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1053381 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
MacIntyre, E., Pinto, E. A., Mouatt, B., Henry, M. L., Lamb, C., BRAITHWAITE, F., Meulders, A., & Stanton, T. R. (2024) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2024.102449 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
What characterizes and determines threat-related biases in fear and anxiety?
Aue, T., & Okon‐Singer, H. (2016) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.11.005 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
We prefer what we fear: A response preference bias mimics attentional capture in spider fear
Haberkamp, A., Biafora, M., Schmidt, T., & Weiß, K. (2017) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2017.10.008 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Müller, U. W. D., Gerdes, A. B. M., & Alpers, G. W. (2021) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102513 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sun, M., & Chen, L. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15030333 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
MacIntyre, E., Whitaker, M. M., BRAITHWAITE, F., Stefanucci, J. K., & Stanton, T. R. (2025) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-025-02125-0 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Affective content of simple geometric shapes promotes visual size perception
Lu, Y., & Chen, L. (2025) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2025.109006 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Development and validation of an open-access online Behavioral Avoidance Test (BAT) for spider fearPreprint
Grill, M., Heller, M., & Haberkamp, A. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/5k497 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The influence of affective voice on sound distance perceptionPreprint
Kroczek, L. O. H., Roßkopf, S., Stärz, F., Blau, M., van de Par, S., & Mühlberger, A. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/qdw9p · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationDynamic Gains in Growing Threat and Threat Appraisal
Riskind, J. H., & Rector, N. A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-8782-5_5
CBT for Reducing Looming Vulnerability Distortions: Translational Concepts and Clinical Applications
Riskind, J. H., & Rector, N. A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-8782-5_15
Marter, K. (2021) · Über/Strom: Wegweiser durchs digitale Zeitalter · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-34061-2_6
Oder wisset ihr nicht, dass euer Leib ein Tempel […] ist […]!
Marter, K. (2021) · Über/Strom: Wegweiser durchs digitale Zeitalter · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-34061-2_3
Virtual Reality in the Assessment, Understanding and Treatment of Mental Health Disorders
Riva, G., & Serino, S. (2021) · MDPI eBooks · doi:10.3390/books978-3-03943-776-4
Determination of Phobic Disorders Using Virtual Reality Technologies
Obukhov, A. D., Dedov, D. L., Chebotov, N., Nazarova, A. O., & Teselkin, D. V. (2022) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-09070-7_8
Specific Phobia: Etiological, Cognitive, and Neuroscientific Aspects
Azab, M. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-19362-0_4
Ben-Baruch, Y. D., Zvik, Y., & Cohen, N. (2025) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2025.2510388
Shalev, T., & Hadad, B. (2025) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-025-03110-w
Aversively conditioned context enhances visual size illusion via stimulus-specific neural networks
Zhu, J., Yang, Y., Chen, L., & Luo, W. (2025) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2025.113125 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ben-Baruch, Y. D., & Cohen, N. (2025) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.70165
Neural Oscillations Underlying Guilt-Related Modulation of Visual Size Perception
Zhang, Y., Sun, M., & Chen, L. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16040541
Social anxiety and preferred interpersonal distance: The role of estimation bias
Bucur, S., Prasad, D., & Lange, W. (2026) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.07.007
- Authors
- Shiban, Y., Fruth, M. B., Pauli, P., Kinateder, M., Reichenberger, J., & Mühlberger, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Regensburg (DE)
- University of Würzburg (DE)
- Brown University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Shiban, Youssef
- Venue
- Biological Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-12
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- Pt B
- Pages
- 146-152
- ISSN
- 0301-0511 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2297536392
- Cited by
- 52
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 4
- FWCI
- 8.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Biological Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- spider phobia, virtual reality exposure therapy, phobia treatment, skin conductance response
- MeSH terms
- Attentional Bias, Adult, Animals, Arousal, Fear, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Galvanic Skin Response, Humans, Implosive Therapy, Male, Phobic Disorders, Size Perception, Spiders, User-Computer Interface, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
