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Cited by 155Eating Disorders and BehaviorsBody Image and Dysmorphia StudiesNutrition, Health and Food Behavior

Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls’ body dissatisfaction

Open access
Roberts, Savannah R., Maheux, Anne J., Hunt, Rowan A., Ladd, Brianna A., Choukas-Bradley, Sophia·2022·Body Image
DOI 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.03.002
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Abstract

The tripartite influence model stipulates that appearance pressures from three sources (family, peers, traditional media) lead adolescent girls to internalize a thin appearance ideal and engage in social appearance comparisons, resulting in body dissatisfaction (Thompson et al., 1999). Social media is a modern source of appearance pressure and, increasingly, adolescent girls desire an appearance that is both thin and muscular. The current study of U.S. adolescent girls (n = 543, Mage = 15.58, 49.17% Latina, 28.18% White, 8.66% Black, 7.55% Asian, 6.45% multiracial/another race/ethnicity) incorporates social media appearance pressures and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model using structural equation modeling. Findings provided support for this adapted model: family, peers, traditional media, and social media contributed to body dissatisfaction. All appearance pressure sources were associated with appearance esteem via thin ideal internalization. Peer and social media pressures were both related to greater muscular ideal internalization, which was not significantly associated with appearance esteem. Social media was the only source of pressure associated with appearance esteem through both thin ideal internalization and body comparison. Findings highlight adolescent girls’ pressure to look both thin and muscular, as well as the role of social media as a prominent source of appearance socialization.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study adapts the tripartite influence model by adding social media appearance pressure and muscular ideal internalization in U.S. adolescent girls (n = 543). Social media pressure uniquely related to lower appearance esteem through thin ideal internalization and body comparison, while muscular ideal internalization was linked to peer and social media pressure but not appearance esteem.

Key findings

  • The final structural model showed acceptable fit, χ²(974) = 2617.78, TLI = .92, CFI = .92, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .05; family, peer, traditional media, and social media pressures each had significant total effects on appearance esteem through the mediators (ps = .009 to .04).
  • All appearance pressure sources were indirectly associated with lower appearance esteem through thin ideal internalization: family (b = −0.10, SE = 0.05, p = .02), peers (b = −0.08, SE = 0.04, p = .03), traditional media (b = −0.17, SE = 0.08, p = .04), and social media (b = −0.20, SE = 0.09, p = .02).
  • Social media was the only pressure source associated with appearance esteem through both thin ideal internalization and body comparison (body comparison indirect effect b = −0.16, SE = 0.08, p = .04); social media direct paths were significant to body comparison (b = 0.37, β = .29, p = .020), thin ideal internalization (b = 0.44, β = .30, p = .007), and muscular ideal internalization (b = 0.29, β = .25, p = .023).
  • Peer pressure (b = 0.25, β = .22, p < .001) and social media pressure (b = 0.29, β = .25, p = .023) were related to greater muscular ideal internalization, but muscular ideal internalization was not significantly associated with appearance esteem (b = 0.09, β = .07, p = .225).

Methods

  • Cross-sectional survey data from a U.S. sample of 543 adolescent girls ages 13–18 (M age = 15.58, SD = 1.23), recruited from a large, diverse suburban high school district in Florida; 49.17% Hispanic/Latina, 28.18% White, 8.66% Black, 7.55% Asian, 6.45% multiracial/another race/ethnicity; 32.97% eligible for free or reduced-price lunch; data collected October 2019.
  • Measures included SATAQ-4 family, peer, and traditional media pressure subscales; an adapted SATAQ-4 social media pressure subscale; SATAQ-4 thin and muscular ideal internalization subscales; BEECOM body comparison; and BESAA appearance esteem; current-sample α = .88–.96.
  • Structural equation modeling in R with lavaan, using a measurement model followed by a structural model, full-information maximum likelihood for missing data (1.90% missing), 10,000 bootstrapped samples for indirect effects, and BMI and race/ethnicity as covariates.

Limitations

  • Stated: cross-sectional data prevent assessing temporal ordering or causal structure of the mediational tripartite model.
  • Stated: measures capture a dominant Eurocentric beauty ideal (e.g., thinness) and do not capture appearance ideals that may be culturally relevant to historically marginalized racial and ethnic populations, despite a sample that was nearly 50% Latina.
  • Evident: the sample came from one Florida suburban school district, and the social media pressure items were adapted from traditional media items with identical wording except for “social media,” which the authors note required residual covariances between media and social media items; these features may limit generalizability and measurement specificity.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.03.002

Cites

65 of 65 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

10 of 42 cited sources checked · 5 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    One study found that social media use was associated with internalization of the muscular ideal for adolescent boys, but not girls.

    “However, one study found that social media use was associated with internalization of the muscular ideal for adolescent boys, but not girls (Rodgers et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rodgers et al., 2020 source
  • Interpretationcitation

    The current results are aligned with prior work demonstrating that social appearance comparisons mediate the association between social media use and body dissatisfaction.

    “Furthermore, the current results are aligned with prior work demonstrating that social appearance comparisons mediate the association between social media use and body dissatisfaction (e.g., Chang et al., 2019;Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021;Scully et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Chang et al., 2019 source
    • cites Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021 source
    • cites Scully et al., 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Appearance ideals are likely promoted on social media through 'thinspiration,' 'fitspiration,' and other highly-edited or influencer-created visual content.

    “Appearance ideals are likely promoted on social media through”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Carrotte et al., 2017 source

      The Introduction (Overview of Fitspiration) describes thinspiration as promoting thinness, and the Discussion (Principal Findings) reports that social-media fitspiration depicts thin and athletic body ideals. The paper does not establish that the images are highly edited or influencer-created. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Ghaznavi & Taylor, 2015 source
  • Premisecitation

    In prior work, internalization of the muscular ideal has not been directly associated with adolescent girls' and boys' body dissatisfaction, but rather their likelihood to engage in muscle-building behaviors.

    “In prior work, internalization of the muscular ideal has not been directly associated with adolescent girls' and boys' body dissatisfaction, but rather their likelihood to engage in muscle-building behaviors (Rodgers et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rodgers et al., 2020 source
  • Premisecitation

    Muscularity-oriented disordered eating behaviors are relatively common among both adolescent boys and girls.

    “Clinicians working with adolescent girls should assess for muscularity-oriented disordered eating behaviors, which are relatively common among both adolescent boys and girls (Eisenberg et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eisenberg et al., 2012 source

      The Results report that changing eating to increase muscle size or tone was common among both boys and girls, and the Conclusions recommend that clinicians ask adolescents about muscle-enhancing behaviors. The paper does not establish that these common behaviors were disordered eating: its Conclusions say that changing eating or exercising may be beneficial, while compulsive or excessive use is cause for concern. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 27
  • May combine two claims. 26
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Among girls specifically, thin ideal internalization mediated the association between social media use and body dissatisfaction, whereas muscular ideal internalization did not.

    “Among girls specifically, thin ideal internalization mediated the association between social media use and body dissatisfaction, whereas muscular ideal internalization did not.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rodgers et al., 2020 source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) says that, among girls, social-media-ideal internalization mediated the association between social media use and body dissatisfaction. The paper measures that construct separately from muscular-ideal internalization; it does not identify the mediator specifically as thin-ideal internalization. The Discussion describes the social-media-use-to-muscular-ideal pathway as nonsignificant among girls, but the Model Testing section describes a direct effect on muscular-ideal internalization, so the copy does not clearly establish the claimed contrast in mediation. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    An additional study with adolescents found social media to be a source of appearance pressure that contributed to body dissatisfaction; authors argued that social media may be an additional source of appearance pressure that resembled the original three sources in the model.

    “An additional study with adolescents found social media to be a source of appearance pressure that contributed to body dissatisfaction; authors argued that social media may be an additional source of appearance pressure that resembled the original three sources in the model (de Vries et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites de Vries et al., 2016 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rodgers and colleagues (2020) developed a biopsychosocial model of social media use, finding that social media use was associated with body dissatisfaction via internalization of appearance ideals and social comparison among adolescent girls and boys.

    “For example, Rodgers and colleagues (2020) developed a biopsychosocial model of social media use, finding that social media use was associated with body dissatisfaction via internalization of appearance ideals and social comparison among adolescent girls and boys.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rodgers et al., 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Unlike celebrities and models in traditional media, images on social media may appear as realistic targets of comparison, encouraging adolescents to engage in appearance comparisons with highly-idealized photos that can negatively impact their body image.

    “Unlike celebrities and models in traditional media, images on social media may appear as realistic targets of comparison, encouraging adolescents to engage in appearance comparisons with highly-idealized photos that can negatively impact their body image (see Choukas-Bradley et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Choukas-Bradley et al., 2021 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Social media literacy programs can help adolescents become informed consumers of appearance-related content on social media and may help prevent body dissatisfaction and eating disorders.

    “Social media literacy programs can help adolescents become informed consumers of appearance-related content on social media and may help prevent body dissatisfaction and eating disorders (McLean et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McLean et al., 2017 source

      The Discussion reports improvements in body esteem, dietary restraint, and media-literacy scepticism after the intervention, supporting the claim that such programs may help with appearance-related content and body dissatisfaction. But the pilot studied adolescent girls only and measured eating-disorder risk factors, not whether eating disorders were prevented; it also had no follow-up assessment. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Higher social media pressure had a significant total effect on appearance esteem through the three mediators, controlling for family, peer, and traditional media pressures.

    “Family, peer, media, and social media each had significant total effects on appearance esteem collectively through the three mediating variables (ps = .009to .04).”
    • Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
      “We found that, controlling for the appearance pressure sources outlined in the tripartite influence model (family, peers, and traditional media; Thompson et al., 1999), higher social media pressure was associated with lower appearance esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the present study, only appearance pressures from peers and social media, but not family or traditional media, were significantly associated with higher muscular ideal internalization.

    “In the present study, only appearance pressures from peers and social media, but not family or traditional media, were significantly associated with higher muscular ideal internalization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Our sample was racially and ethnically diverse with Latina girls making up almost 50% of the sample.

    “Our sample was racially and ethnically diverse with Latina girls making up almost 50% of the sample.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In isolation, the muscular ideal has been found to be associated with lower body dissatisfaction, yet this association is no longer significant when simultaneously including thin ideal internalization.

    “Interestingly, in isolation, the muscular ideal has been found to be associated with lower body dissatisfaction, yet this association is no longer significant when simultaneously including thin ideal internalization (Uhlmann et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Uhlmann et al., 2018 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The tripartite influence model has received widespread empirical support.

    “While this model has received widespread empirical support (see Keery et al., 2004;Rodgers et al., 2015;Shroff & Thompson, 2006), the sociocultural context of girls' appearance pressures and beauty ideals has evolved over time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Keery et al., 2004 source
    • cites Rodgers et al., 2015 source
    • cites Shroff & Thompson, 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In addition to family, peers, and traditional media, girls now receive messages about beauty ideals from social media.

    “In addition to family, peers, and traditional media, girls now receive messages about beauty ideals from social media, and appearance ideals now encourage girls to aspire to both thinness and muscularity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Appearance ideals now encourage girls to aspire to both thinness and muscularity.

    “In addition to family, peers, and traditional media, girls now receive messages about beauty ideals from social media, and appearance ideals now encourage girls to aspire to both thinness and muscularity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Another study of adolescent boys and girls found that social media intensity was associated with body dissatisfaction via thin and muscular ideal internalization and social comparison.

    “Another study of adolescent boys and girls found that social media intensity, or the degree of importance adolescents placed on social media, was associated with body dissatisfaction via thin and muscular ideal internalization and social comparison (Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The current study is the first to our knowledge to offer a comprehensive adaptation of the tripartite influence model that considers a fourth source of appearance pressure, social media, while simultaneously recognizing internalization of the muscular ideal as a novel appearance ideal.

    “Therefore, the current study is the first to our knowledge to offer a comprehensive adaptation of the tripartite influence model that considers a fourth source of appearance pressure, social media, while simultaneously recognizing internalization of the muscular ideal as a novel appearance ideal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The ideal body type for girls and women is becoming increasingly muscular, meaning that adolescent girls now feel pressured to appear thin and fit.

    “While body image research has traditionally considered how adolescent girls and women are exposed to the thin ideal, the ideal body type for girls and women is becoming increasingly muscular, meaning that adolescent girls now feel pressured to appear thin and fit.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fitspiration content is popular on social media and experimental exposure to fitspiration content among young women has been shown to cause subsequently higher body dissatisfaction via social appearance comparisons.

    “Fitspiration content is popular on social media and experimental exposure to fitspiration content among young women has been shown to cause subsequently higher body dissatisfaction via social appearance comparisons (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These findings highlight the salience of both thinness and muscularity for girls' appearance ideals.

    “These findings highlight the salience of both thinness and muscularity for girls' appearance ideals and the importance of including social media appearance pressures when considering the etiology of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The sociocultural context of girls' appearance pressures and beauty ideals has evolved over time.

    “While this model has received widespread empirical support (see Keery et al., 2004;Rodgers et al., 2015;Shroff & Thompson, 2006), the sociocultural context of girls' appearance pressures and beauty ideals has evolved over time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The tripartite influence model posits that three sources of appearance pressure-family, peers, and traditional media-cause adolescent girls to internalize a thin appearance ideal and engage in social appearance comparisons, resulting in body dissatisfaction.

    “The tripartite influence model, proposed in the late 1990s with cisgender girls in mind, posits that three sources of appearance pressure-family, peers, and traditional media-cause adolescent girls to internalize a thin appearance ideal and engage in social appearance comparisons, resulting in body dissatisfaction (Thompson et al., 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thompson et al., 1999 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A recent longitudinal study with adolescents found higher social media use predicted higher social comparison over time, and in turn, lower body satisfaction.

    “Similar results were found in a recent longitudinal study with adolescents, such that higher social media use predicted higher social comparison over time, and in turn, lower body satisfaction (Jarman, McLean, et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jarman, McLean, et al., 2021 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Current sample alpha for the SATAQ-4 family, peer, and traditional media subscales ranged from 0.89 to 0.95.

    “Current sample α for subscales = 0.89-0.95.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Current sample alpha for the body comparison subscale was 0.95.

    “Current sample α = 0.95.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Muscle-enhancing diets and behaviors are associated with a range of adverse health consequences, including increased risk for eating disorders and depression and adverse physiological changes, such as poor lipid and glucose levels and increased blood pressure.

    “For example, though studied primarily among men and boys, muscle-enhancing diets and behaviors are associated with a range of adverse health consequences, including increased risk for eating disorders and depression and adverse physiological changes, such as poor lipid and glucose levels and increased blood pressure (see Cafri et al., 2005 for review).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cafri et al., 2005 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    This prior work suggests that sources of appearance pressure may have different longitudinal effects.

    “This prior work suggests that sources of appearance pressure may have different longitudinal effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    These results are consistent with past research, which shows that media exposure is associated with internalization of the thin ideal among adolescent girls.

    “These results are consistent with past research, which shows that media exposure is associated with internalization of the thin ideal among adolescent girls (Keery et al., 2004;Shroff & Thompson, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Keery et al., 2004 source
    • cites Shroff & Thompson, 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The rising popularity of the muscular ideal among adolescent girls could have negative consequences that are not yet well-understood.

    “Additionally, although muscular ideal internalization was not associated with body dissatisfaction in the current study, the rising popularity of the muscular ideal among adolescent girls could have negative consequences that are not yet well-understood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Current sample alpha for the adapted social media pressure subscale was 0.96.

    “Current sample α = 0.96.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Initial work with Australian adolescents suggests that, over time, social media use predicts lower body satisfaction via social comparison, but not thin ideal or muscular ideal internalization.

    “Indeed, initial work with Australian adolescents suggests that, over time, social media use predicts lower body satisfaction via social comparison, but not thin ideal or muscular ideal internalization (Jarman, McLean, et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jarman, McLean, et al., 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The SATAQ-4 demonstrates good reliability and validity for use with adolescent girls.

    “Sources of appearance pressure were measured using the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire -4 (SATAQ-4; Schaefer et al., 2015), a measure of appearance pressures that demonstrates good reliability and validity for use with adolescent girls (Yamamiya et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yamamiya et al., 2016 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    One prior study of Australian adolescents found that appearance pressure from mothers and female friends predicted girls' disordered eating behaviors 16 months later, whereas appearance pressures from the media and fathers did not.

    “One prior study of Australian adolescents found that appearance pressure from mothers and female friends predicted girls' disordered eating behaviors 16 months later, whereas appearance pressures from the media and fathers did not (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2004

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Longitudinal studies with adolescent girls using the tripartite influence model as a framework have found that internalization of the appearance ideal transmitted by the media predicts body dissatisfaction eight months later.

    “Longitudinal studies with adolescent girls using the tripartite influence model as a framework have found that internalization of the appearance ideal transmitted by the media predicts body dissatisfaction eight months later (Rodgers et al., 2015), yet other research has found that longterm exposure to thin ideal media is not associated with body dissatisfaction, except among girls who exhibit”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rodgers et al., 2015 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    BMI and race/ethnicity were added as predictors of all paths, which significantly improved model fit and thus were retained in the model.

    “Given theoretical relevance, BMI and race/ethnicity (Latina as reference group; dummy codes for White, Black, Asian, multiracial/other race/ethnicity) were added as predictors of all paths, which significantly improved model fit and thus were retained in the model, Δχ 2 (200) = 354.62,p < .001.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Without the use of longitudinal data, we cannot assess the temporal ordering of the model and thus inferences about the causal structure of the model cannot be made.

    “Without the use of longitudinal data, we cannot assess the temporal ordering of the model and thus inferences about the causal structure of the model cannot be made.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Muscularity ideals seem to be emerging among women and therefore may be more likely to be held and transmitted among peer groups, not yet having been adopted by traditional media or parental sources of pressure.

    “Indeed, research suggests that muscularity ideals seem to be emerging among women (Bozsik et al., 2018) and therefore may be more likely to be held and transmitted among peer groups, not yet having been adopted by traditional media or parental sources of pressure.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bozsik et al., 2018 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many adolescents may also view muscularity-related content from celebrities and influencers on social media, thereby increasing the collective internalization of the muscular ideal across the peer group.

    “Rather than being exposed to muscularity-related content solely from peers, many adolescents may also view such content from celebrities and influencers on social media (Bell et al., 2021), thereby increasing the collective internalization of the muscular ideal across the peer group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bell et al., 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Black and Latina girls desire a curvier appearance than their White peers.

    “Some work also suggests that Black and Latina girls desire a curvier appearance than their White peers (Romo et al., 2016;Schooler & Daniels, 2014), suggesting that girls of color may have their own unique appearance ideals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Romo et al., 2016 source
    • cites Schooler & Daniels, 2014 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Current sample alpha for the thin ideal internalization subscale was 0.88 and for the muscular ideal internalization subscale was 0.91.

    “Current sample α for thin ideal subscale = 0.88, for muscular ideal subscale = 0.91.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Across all variables included in the final model, only 1.90% of data were missing.

    “Across all variables included in the final model, only 1.90% of data were missing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Both muscular and thin body ideals are communicated to adolescent girls, in part via social media, though the thin ideal appears more relevant to girls' body dissatisfaction.

    “Moreover, results highlight that both muscular and thin body ideals are communicated to adolescent girls, in part via social media, though the thin ideal appears more relevant to girls' body dissatisfaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other research has found that longterm exposure to thin ideal media is not associated with body dissatisfaction, except among girls who exhibit heightened initial body image concerns.

    “yet other research has found that longterm exposure to thin ideal media is not associated with body dissatisfaction, except among girls who exhibit heightened initial body image concerns (Stice et al., 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stice et al., 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Engaging with photos on social media may promote internalization of unrealistically thin body ideals, resulting in worsened body image.

    “Research suggests that engaging with photos on social media may promote internalization of unrealistically thin body ideals, resulting in worsened body image (Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The associations outlined in the tripartite influence model may unfold across adolescent development, making longitudinal data necessary to capture these relationships.

    “The associations outlined in the tripartite influence model may unfold across adolescent development, making longitudinal data necessary to capture these relationships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Current sample alpha for the appearance esteem subscale was 0.90.

    “Current sample α = 0.90.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The present findings highlight that traditional media and social media each exert unique influence on adolescent girls' thin ideal internalization.

    “The present findings highlight that traditional media and social media each exert unique influence on adolescent girls' thin ideal internalization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
44 of 44

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The adapted social media pressure subscale validly measures social media appearance pressure.

    “For the current study, items from the (traditional) media subscale of the SATAQ-4 (Schaefer et al., 2015) were adapted to ask about pressure from social media, creating a new, fourth subscale that consisted of 4 items.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The sample of adolescent girls from a Florida school district is representative of U.S. adolescent girls.

    “The current study represents a subset of data from a U.S. sample of 543 adolescent girls (ages 13-18, M age = 15.58;SD age = 1.23), recruited from a large, diverse suburban high school district in Florida as part of an overarching study assessing social media use, character development, and wellbeing among adolescents.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Researchers have yet to examine longitudinally how social media appearance pressures differ from other sources of appearance pressures (e.g., mass media, parents).

    “Importantly, researchers have yet to examine longitudinally how social media appearance pressures differ from other sources of appearance pressures (e.g., mass media, parents).”
3 of 3

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentχ²(791) = 3550.47reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ 2 (791) = 3550.47,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(769) = 2118.9reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ 2 (769) = 2118.90,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(776) = 2348.28reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ 2 (776) = 2348.28,p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(974) = 2617.78reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ 2 (974) = 2617.78,p < .001”

4 of 4

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Roberts, S. R., Maheux, A. J., Hunt, R. A., Ladd, B. A., & Choukas-Bradley, S.
Affiliations
  • University of Delaware (US)
  • University of Louisville (US)
Corresponding author
Roberts, Savannah R.
ORCID
Venue
Body Image
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2022-06
Volume
41
Pages
239-247
ISSN
1740-1445 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.03.002
OpenAlex
W4220970637
Cited by
154
References
63
Citations by year
2026: 44 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 1
FWCI
23.31
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Body Image (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Body Image and Dysmorphia Studies
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Keywords
body dissatisfaction, Tripartite Influence Model, social media, thin-ideal internalization, appearance pressure, body comparison, adolescent girls, peer influence, family influence, traditional media
MeSH terms
Body Dissatisfaction, Adolescent, Body Image, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Humans, Peer Group, Social Media

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-21.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-21.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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