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Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls’ body dissatisfaction
Open accessAbstract
The tripartite influence model stipulates that appearance pressures from three sources (family, peers, traditional media) lead adolescent girls to internalize a thin appearance ideal and engage in social appearance comparisons, resulting in body dissatisfaction (Thompson et al., 1999). Social media is a modern source of appearance pressure and, increasingly, adolescent girls desire an appearance that is both thin and muscular. The current study of U.S. adolescent girls (n = 543, Mage = 15.58, 49.17% Latina, 28.18% White, 8.66% Black, 7.55% Asian, 6.45% multiracial/another race/ethnicity) incorporates social media appearance pressures and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model using structural equation modeling. Findings provided support for this adapted model: family, peers, traditional media, and social media contributed to body dissatisfaction. All appearance pressure sources were associated with appearance esteem via thin ideal internalization. Peer and social media pressures were both related to greater muscular ideal internalization, which was not significantly associated with appearance esteem. Social media was the only source of pressure associated with appearance esteem through both thin ideal internalization and body comparison. Findings highlight adolescent girls’ pressure to look both thin and muscular, as well as the role of social media as a prominent source of appearance socialization.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This study adapts the tripartite influence model by adding social media appearance pressure and muscular ideal internalization in U.S. adolescent girls (n = 543). Social media pressure uniquely related to lower appearance esteem through thin ideal internalization and body comparison, while muscular ideal internalization was linked to peer and social media pressure but not appearance esteem.
Key findings
- The final structural model showed acceptable fit, χ²(974) = 2617.78, TLI = .92, CFI = .92, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .05; family, peer, traditional media, and social media pressures each had significant total effects on appearance esteem through the mediators (ps = .009 to .04).
- All appearance pressure sources were indirectly associated with lower appearance esteem through thin ideal internalization: family (b = −0.10, SE = 0.05, p = .02), peers (b = −0.08, SE = 0.04, p = .03), traditional media (b = −0.17, SE = 0.08, p = .04), and social media (b = −0.20, SE = 0.09, p = .02).
- Social media was the only pressure source associated with appearance esteem through both thin ideal internalization and body comparison (body comparison indirect effect b = −0.16, SE = 0.08, p = .04); social media direct paths were significant to body comparison (b = 0.37, β = .29, p = .020), thin ideal internalization (b = 0.44, β = .30, p = .007), and muscular ideal internalization (b = 0.29, β = .25, p = .023).
- Peer pressure (b = 0.25, β = .22, p < .001) and social media pressure (b = 0.29, β = .25, p = .023) were related to greater muscular ideal internalization, but muscular ideal internalization was not significantly associated with appearance esteem (b = 0.09, β = .07, p = .225).
Methods
- Cross-sectional survey data from a U.S. sample of 543 adolescent girls ages 13–18 (M age = 15.58, SD = 1.23), recruited from a large, diverse suburban high school district in Florida; 49.17% Hispanic/Latina, 28.18% White, 8.66% Black, 7.55% Asian, 6.45% multiracial/another race/ethnicity; 32.97% eligible for free or reduced-price lunch; data collected October 2019.
- Measures included SATAQ-4 family, peer, and traditional media pressure subscales; an adapted SATAQ-4 social media pressure subscale; SATAQ-4 thin and muscular ideal internalization subscales; BEECOM body comparison; and BESAA appearance esteem; current-sample α = .88–.96.
- Structural equation modeling in R with lavaan, using a measurement model followed by a structural model, full-information maximum likelihood for missing data (1.90% missing), 10,000 bootstrapped samples for indirect effects, and BMI and race/ethnicity as covariates.
Limitations
- Stated: cross-sectional data prevent assessing temporal ordering or causal structure of the mediational tripartite model.
- Stated: measures capture a dominant Eurocentric beauty ideal (e.g., thinness) and do not capture appearance ideals that may be culturally relevant to historically marginalized racial and ethnic populations, despite a sample that was nearly 50% Latina.
- Evident: the sample came from one Florida suburban school district, and the social media pressure items were adapted from traditional media items with identical wording except for “social media,” which the authors note required residual covariances between media and social media items; these features may limit generalizability and measurement specificity.
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Claims the paper makes
27 Own result · 21 No full text of the sources · 13 Own interpretation · 12 Own method · 7 No basis given · 5 Partly supported · 4 Supported · 1 Supported so far · 1 Sources not found · 1 Not checked yet · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“However, one study found that social media use was associated with internalization of the muscular ideal for adolescent boys, but not girls (Rodgers et al., 2020).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1.3. Adolescent Girls' Internalization of the Muscular Ideal
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Rodgers et al., 2020 source
The Discussion reports that social media use was directly related to internalization of the muscular ideal among boys, while the corresponding pathway among girls was not significant. This matches the citing sentence's association claim without implying causation. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the current results are aligned with prior work demonstrating that social appearance comparisons mediate the association between social media use and body dissatisfaction (e.g., Chang et al., 2019;Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021;Scully et al., 2020).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.1. Appearance Pressure from Social Media
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Chang et al., 2019 source
The Results report that peer appearance comparisons mediated the associations of Instagram photo browsing and editing with lower body esteem among Singapore adolescent girls. The finding supports the cited example, although the paper did not find mediation for photo posting. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021 source
- Not matchedcites Scully et al., 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Appearance ideals are likely promoted on social media through”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.1. Appearance Pressure from Social Media
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Carrotte et al., 2017 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (Overview of Fitspiration) describes thinspiration as promoting thinness, and the Discussion (Principal Findings) reports that social-media fitspiration depicts thin and athletic body ideals. The paper does not establish that the images are highly edited or influencer-created. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ghaznavi & Taylor, 2015 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In prior work, internalization of the muscular ideal has not been directly associated with adolescent girls' and boys' body dissatisfaction, but rather their likelihood to engage in muscle-building behaviors (Rodgers et al., 2020).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.2. Muscular Ideal Internalization
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Rodgers et al., 2020 source
In Findings among boys (page unavailable), the paper reports a direct pathway between muscular-ideal internalization and muscle-building behaviors and says that pathway was also in the girls’ final model. It does not report a direct pathway from muscular-ideal internalization to body dissatisfaction in either final model. The claim is supported as a description of the modeled direct pathways, not as a claim that the variables have no association of any kind. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Clinicians working with adolescent girls should assess for muscularity-oriented disordered eating behaviors, which are relatively common among both adolescent boys and girls (Eisenberg et al., 2012).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.5. Clinical Implications
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Eisenberg et al., 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report that changing eating to increase muscle size or tone was common among both boys and girls, and the Conclusions recommend that clinicians ask adolescents about muscle-enhancing behaviors. The paper does not establish that these common behaviors were disordered eating: its Conclusions say that changing eating or exercising may be beneficial, while compulsive or excessive use is cause for concern. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Higher social media pressure was significantly associated with higher body comparison, thin ideal internalization, and muscular ideal internalization.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 3.3. Direct and Indirect Effects
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Higher social media pressure was significantly associated with higher body comparison, thin ideal internalization, and muscular ideal internalization.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 3.3. Direct and Indirect Effects
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Higher body comparison and thin ideal internalization were significantly associated with lower appearance esteem, whereas muscular ideal internalization was not significantly associated with appearance esteem.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 3.3. Direct and Indirect Effects
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Higher social media pressure was also indirectly associated with lower appearance esteem through body comparison (b = -0.16,se = 0.08, p = .04).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 3.3. Direct and Indirect Effects
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Higher body comparison and thin ideal internalization were significantly associated with lower appearance esteem, whereas muscular ideal internalization was not significantly associated with appearance esteem.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 3.3. Direct and Indirect Effects
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 27
- It may state two separate claims as one. 26
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Among girls specifically, thin ideal internalization mediated the association between social media use and body dissatisfaction, whereas muscular ideal internalization did not.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1.4. Prior Studies of Social Media and the Tripartite Influence Model
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Rodgers et al., 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page unavailable) says that, among girls, social-media-ideal internalization mediated the association between social media use and body dissatisfaction. The paper measures that construct separately from muscular-ideal internalization; it does not identify the mediator specifically as thin-ideal internalization. The Discussion describes the social-media-use-to-muscular-ideal pathway as nonsignificant among girls, but the Model Testing section describes a direct effect on muscular-ideal internalization, so the copy does not clearly establish the claimed contrast in mediation. (LLM, conf=0.82)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“An additional study with adolescents found social media to be a source of appearance pressure that contributed to body dissatisfaction; authors argued that social media may be an additional source of appearance pressure that resembled the original three sources in the model (de Vries et al., 2016).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1.4. Prior Studies of Social Media and the Tripartite Influence Model
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites de Vries et al., 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“For example, Rodgers and colleagues (2020) developed a biopsychosocial model of social media use, finding that social media use was associated with body dissatisfaction via internalization of appearance ideals and social comparison among adolescent girls and boys.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1.4. Prior Studies of Social Media and the Tripartite Influence Model
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Rodgers et al., 2020 source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Unlike celebrities and models in traditional media, images on social media may appear as realistic targets of comparison, encouraging adolescents to engage in appearance comparisons with highly-idealized photos that can negatively impact their body image (see Choukas-Bradley et al., 2021).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.1. Appearance Pressure from Social Media
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Choukas-Bradley et al., 2021 source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Social media literacy programs can help adolescents become informed consumers of appearance-related content on social media and may help prevent body dissatisfaction and eating disorders (McLean et al., 2017).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.5. Clinical Implications
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites McLean et al., 2017 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports improvements in body esteem, dietary restraint, and media-literacy scepticism after the intervention, supporting the claim that such programs may help with appearance-related content and body dissatisfaction. But the pilot studied adolescent girls only and measured eating-disorder risk factors, not whether eating disorders were prevented; it also had no follow-up assessment. (LLM, conf=0.86)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Family, peer, media, and social media each had significant total effects on appearance esteem collectively through the three mediating variables (ps = .009to .04).”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
“We found that, controlling for the appearance pressure sources outlined in the tripartite influence model (family, peers, and traditional media; Thompson et al., 1999), higher social media pressure was associated with lower appearance esteem.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 3.3. Direct and Indirect Effects
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the present study, only appearance pressures from peers and social media, but not family or traditional media, were significantly associated with higher muscular ideal internalization.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.2. Muscular Ideal Internalization
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our sample was racially and ethnically diverse with Latina girls making up almost 50% of the sample.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.4. Limitations and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, in isolation, the muscular ideal has been found to be associated with lower body dissatisfaction, yet this association is no longer significant when simultaneously including thin ideal internalization (Uhlmann et al., 2018).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1.3. Adolescent Girls' Internalization of the Muscular Ideal
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Uhlmann et al., 2018 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“While this model has received widespread empirical support (see Keery et al., 2004;Rodgers et al., 2015;Shroff & Thompson, 2006), the sociocultural context of girls' appearance pressures and beauty ideals has evolved over time.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition to family, peers, and traditional media, girls now receive messages about beauty ideals from social media, and appearance ideals now encourage girls to aspire to both thinness and muscularity.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1. Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition to family, peers, and traditional media, girls now receive messages about beauty ideals from social media, and appearance ideals now encourage girls to aspire to both thinness and muscularity.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1. Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Another study of adolescent boys and girls found that social media intensity, or the degree of importance adolescents placed on social media, was associated with body dissatisfaction via thin and muscular ideal internalization and social comparison (Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1.4. Prior Studies of Social Media and the Tripartite Influence Model
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, the current study is the first to our knowledge to offer a comprehensive adaptation of the tripartite influence model that considers a fourth source of appearance pressure, social media, while simultaneously recognizing internalization of the muscular ideal as a novel appearance ideal.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1.4. Prior Studies of Social Media and the Tripartite Influence Model
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While body image research has traditionally considered how adolescent girls and women are exposed to the thin ideal, the ideal body type for girls and women is becoming increasingly muscular, meaning that adolescent girls now feel pressured to appear thin and fit.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1.3. Adolescent Girls' Internalization of the Muscular Ideal
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Fitspiration content is popular on social media and experimental exposure to fitspiration content among young women has been shown to cause subsequently higher body dissatisfaction via social appearance comparisons (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1.3. Adolescent Girls' Internalization of the Muscular Ideal
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings highlight the salience of both thinness and muscularity for girls' appearance ideals and the importance of including social media appearance pressures when considering the etiology of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While this model has received widespread empirical support (see Keery et al., 2004;Rodgers et al., 2015;Shroff & Thompson, 2006), the sociocultural context of girls' appearance pressures and beauty ideals has evolved over time.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1. Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The tripartite influence model, proposed in the late 1990s with cisgender girls in mind, posits that three sources of appearance pressure-family, peers, and traditional media-cause adolescent girls to internalize a thin appearance ideal and engage in social appearance comparisons, resulting in body dissatisfaction (Thompson et al., 1999).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Thompson et al., 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Similar results were found in a recent longitudinal study with adolescents, such that higher social media use predicted higher social comparison over time, and in turn, lower body satisfaction (Jarman, McLean, et al., 2021).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 1.4. Prior Studies of Social Media and the Tripartite Influence Model
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jarman, McLean, et al., 2021 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Current sample α for subscales = 0.89-0.95.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 2.2.2. Sources of Appearance Pressure: Family, Peers, and Traditional Media
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Current sample α = 0.95.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 2.2.5. Body Comparison
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, though studied primarily among men and boys, muscle-enhancing diets and behaviors are associated with a range of adverse health consequences, including increased risk for eating disorders and depression and adverse physiological changes, such as poor lipid and glucose levels and increased blood pressure (see Cafri et al., 2005 for review).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.5. Clinical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cafri et al., 2005 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This prior work suggests that sources of appearance pressure may have different longitudinal effects.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.4. Limitations and Future Directions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“These results are consistent with past research, which shows that media exposure is associated with internalization of the thin ideal among adolescent girls (Keery et al., 2004;Shroff & Thompson, 2006).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.3. Appearance Pressure from Family, Peers, and Traditional Media
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, although muscular ideal internalization was not associated with body dissatisfaction in the current study, the rising popularity of the muscular ideal among adolescent girls could have negative consequences that are not yet well-understood.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.5. Clinical Implications
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Current sample α = 0.96.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 2.2.3. Source of Appearance Pressure: Social Media
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Indeed, initial work with Australian adolescents suggests that, over time, social media use predicts lower body satisfaction via social comparison, but not thin ideal or muscular ideal internalization (Jarman, McLean, et al., 2021).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.4. Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jarman, McLean, et al., 2021 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Sources of appearance pressure were measured using the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire -4 (SATAQ-4; Schaefer et al., 2015), a measure of appearance pressures that demonstrates good reliability and validity for use with adolescent girls (Yamamiya et al., 2016).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 2.2.2. Sources of Appearance Pressure: Family, Peers, and Traditional Media
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Yamamiya et al., 2016 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One prior study of Australian adolescents found that appearance pressure from mothers and female friends predicted girls' disordered eating behaviors 16 months later, whereas appearance pressures from the media and fathers did not (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2004).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.4. Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2004
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Longitudinal studies with adolescent girls using the tripartite influence model as a framework have found that internalization of the appearance ideal transmitted by the media predicts body dissatisfaction eight months later (Rodgers et al., 2015), yet other research has found that longterm exposure to thin ideal media is not associated with body dissatisfaction, except among girls who exhibit”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.4. Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rodgers et al., 2015 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given theoretical relevance, BMI and race/ethnicity (Latina as reference group; dummy codes for White, Black, Asian, multiracial/other race/ethnicity) were added as predictors of all paths, which significantly improved model fit and thus were retained in the model, Δχ 2 (200) = 354.62,p < .001.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 3.2. Structural Model
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Without the use of longitudinal data, we cannot assess the temporal ordering of the model and thus inferences about the causal structure of the model cannot be made.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.4. Limitations and Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, research suggests that muscularity ideals seem to be emerging among women (Bozsik et al., 2018) and therefore may be more likely to be held and transmitted among peer groups, not yet having been adopted by traditional media or parental sources of pressure.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.2. Muscular Ideal Internalization
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bozsik et al., 2018 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Rather than being exposed to muscularity-related content solely from peers, many adolescents may also view such content from celebrities and influencers on social media (Bell et al., 2021), thereby increasing the collective internalization of the muscular ideal across the peer group.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.2. Muscular Ideal Internalization
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bell et al., 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Some work also suggests that Black and Latina girls desire a curvier appearance than their White peers (Romo et al., 2016;Schooler & Daniels, 2014), suggesting that girls of color may have their own unique appearance ideals.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.4. Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Current sample α for thin ideal subscale = 0.88, for muscular ideal subscale = 0.91.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 2.2.4. Internalization of Appearance Ideals
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across all variables included in the final model, only 1.90% of data were missing.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 2.2.7. Data Analytic Plan
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, results highlight that both muscular and thin body ideals are communicated to adolescent girls, in part via social media, though the thin ideal appears more relevant to girls' body dissatisfaction.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 5. Conclusion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“yet other research has found that longterm exposure to thin ideal media is not associated with body dissatisfaction, except among girls who exhibit heightened initial body image concerns (Stice et al., 2001).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.4. Limitations and Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stice et al., 2001 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Research suggests that engaging with photos on social media may promote internalization of unrealistically thin body ideals, resulting in worsened body image (Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021).”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.1. Appearance Pressure from Social Media
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jarman, Marques, et al., 2021 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The associations outlined in the tripartite influence model may unfold across adolescent development, making longitudinal data necessary to capture these relationships.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.4. Limitations and Future Directions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Current sample α = 0.90.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 2.2.6. Appearance Esteem
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present findings highlight that traditional media and social media each exert unique influence on adolescent girls' thin ideal internalization.”
§ Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction > 4.3. Appearance Pressure from Family, Peers, and Traditional Media
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The adapted social media pressure subscale validly measures social media appearance pressure.
“For the current study, items from the (traditional) media subscale of the SATAQ-4 (Schaefer et al., 2015) were adapted to ask about pressure from social media, creating a new, fourth subscale that consisted of 4 items.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The sample of adolescent girls from a Florida school district is representative of U.S. adolescent girls.
“The current study represents a subset of data from a U.S. sample of 543 adolescent girls (ages 13-18, M age = 15.58;SD age = 1.23), recruited from a large, diverse suburban high school district in Florida as part of an overarching study assessing social media use, character development, and wellbeing among adolescents.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Researchers have yet to examine longitudinally how social media appearance pressures differ from other sources of appearance pressures (e.g., mass media, parents).
“Importantly, researchers have yet to examine longitudinally how social media appearance pressures differ from other sources of appearance pressures (e.g., mass media, parents).”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentχ²(791) = 3550.47reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“χ 2 (791) = 3550.47,p < .001”
- Consistentχ²(769) = 2118.9reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“χ 2 (769) = 2118.90,p < .001”
- Consistentχ²(776) = 2348.28reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“χ 2 (776) = 2348.28,p < .001”
- Consistentχ²(974) = 2617.78reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“χ 2 (974) = 2617.78,p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
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Metadata
- Authors
- Roberts, S. R., Maheux, A. J., Hunt, R. A., Ladd, B. A., & Choukas-Bradley, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Delaware (US)
- University of Louisville (US)
- Corresponding author
- Roberts, Savannah R.
- Venue
- Body Image
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-06
- Volume
- 41
- Pages
- 239-247
- ISSN
- 1740-1445 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4220970637
- Cited by
- 154
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 7
- FWCI
- 23.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Body Image (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Body Image and Dysmorphia Studies
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- body dissatisfaction, Tripartite Influence Model, social media, thin-ideal internalization, appearance pressure, body comparison, adolescent girls, peer influence, family influence, traditional media
- MeSH terms
- Body Dissatisfaction, Adolescent, Body Image, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Humans, Peer Group, Social Media
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-21, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-21 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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