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Empowering learners for the age of artificial intelligence
Open accessAbstract
Although studied for decades by the research community, artificial intelligence (AI) in education has recently sparked much public debate with the wide-spread popularity of systems such as ChatGPT and DALL-E. Existing literature offers a wealth of research on design, deploying and evaluating AI-driven systems in education. However, the challenges related to the growing influence of AI in the society, calls for revisiting research foundations of AI in education in order to inform decision-making in policy and guide future research. This special issue of Computers & Education: Artificial Intelligence brings 11 papers that explore the theme of empowering learners for the age of AI. The contributions of these papers can be broadly grouped into seven main themes: intersection between AI and humans that looks at the space of coordination; assessment that explores challenges and opportunities afforded by the use of AI in educational assessment; explainability in AI as a critical need for humans in education to understand and trust AI; design for learning that offers principles for designing AI-driven systems and educational opportunities; conceptual AI and learning exploring the need for the development of new theories of learning and their connections with existing theoretical foundations in education; accurate predictions and their role in future education; and applications of AI in classrooms and educational systems. The findings of these studies highlight pressing research and p…
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“Moreover, there is a notable research gap in the study of human-AI collaboration dynamics in academic writing.”
From Human-AI collaboration patterns in AI-assisted academic writing (2024) · cites this paper as Gašević et al. 2023
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“However, it is also well recognised that GenAI's statistical genesis promotes biases and other limitations, including the risk of factual inaccuracies, hallucinations, cultural colonisation, and a tendency towards 'expected' ideas and expressions (Creely and Henderson 2025;Gašević, Siemens & Sadiq, 2023).”
From Comparing Generative AI and teacher feedback: student perceptions of usefulness and trustworthiness (2026) · cites this paper as Gašević, Siemens & Sadiq, 2023
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“Current research is still nascent and primarily focuses on the capabilities and immediate effects of generative AI tools (Gašević et al. 2023; Kishore et al. 2023).”
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AI literacy and its implications for prompt engineering strategies
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“This portable and personalised tutoring tool has the potential to foster self-directed learning among students by providing them with tailored learning resources and experiences (Gašević et al., 2023; Javaid et al., 2023; Zhai, 2023).”
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“This capability opens exciting possibilities for interactive and adaptive learning environments where students can engage in dynamic conversations, ask questions and receive instant feedback from AI-powered virtual assistants (Gašević et al., 2023; Geerling et al., 2023) .”
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Järvelä, S., Nguyen, A., & Molenaar, I. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.107847 · Cited by 58
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Building AI Literacy for Sustainable Teacher Education
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Khalaf, M. A. (2024) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-024-00426-5 · Cited by 42
“…such as, but not limited to, clinical practice [52], medicine [15, 44, 52], finance [12, 63], biology [5], biotechnology [22], education, learning, and assessment (Gašević et al., 2023; [59], nursing education (O'Connor, 2023), career counselling [47], and recruitment and marketing [64].”
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“However, scholarly opinion suggests that ChatGPT is not a substitute for teacher-student interaction, but rather a means of supporting it (Dwivedi et al., 2023; Gašević et al., 2023; O ’ Leary, 2023).”
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“This represents a fundamental shift in how language proficiency is cultivated and assessed (Gašević et al., 2023; Voss et al., 2023).”
Gaze-Driven Adaptive Learning System With ChatGPT-Generated Summaries
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Measuring secondary education students' self-regulated learning processes with digital trace data
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“Moreover, ChatGPT use has been associated with academic fraud, malpractice, plagiarism, and privacy erosion (Garg & Goel, 2022; Gašević et al., 2023).”
AI chatbots: A disguised enemy for academic integrity?
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“The claim of ChatGPT could also reflect researchers’ consideration of ChatGPT as empowering learners (e.g. Gaševic ́ et al., 2023).”
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“According to UNESCO [8], among the strategies proposed to improve teaching conditions are the development of gender-sensitive policies to attract qualified teaching candidates, the review and improvement of the quality of teacher training (both initial and continuing), and the development of a…”
BackgroundAI-enhanced collaborative story writing in the EFL classroom
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“…learning strategies and examination formats for the use of AI applications, on the one hand, and to be informed about the rapidly developing possibilities of AI, on the other hand, to adapt their teaching and examinations accordingly ( Gašević, Siemens and Sadiq, 2023; Rudolph, Tan and Tan, 2023).”
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“As AI holds immense importance for human learning due to its potential to revolutionize and personalize learning, research on learners’ trust in AI technologies has received attention (Gašević et al., 2023).”
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“…tasks may no longer provides the assessment result that most teachers sought after, but by leveraging AI to provide adaptive learning for promoting higher-order learning outcomes (Gašević et al., 2023), it is plausible to still design learning tasks that support higher-order learning outcomes.”
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“By empowering learners with the necessary knowledge and skills, education can enable individuals to adapt, innovate, and responsibly engage with AI technologies, thereby shaping a future where AI serves as a force for positive societal impact [6].”
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“This direction of inquiry would not only enhance our understanding of how SRL interacts with AI to influence learning outcomes but also contribute to optimizing the integration of AI tools in learning processes.”
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Challenges and Limitations of Generative AI in Education
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AI Literacy in Higher Education: A Systematic Approach to Questionnaire Development and Validation
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Blasco, A., & Charisi, V. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5040921 · Cited by 22
Ceallaigh, T. J. Ó., O’ Brien, E., Tømte, C., Kulaksız, T., & Connolly, C. (2025) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2025.2563696 · Cited by 14
“The expansion of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in society has sparked critical discussions about its implications for education, particularly regarding the roles AI can and should play in teaching and learning (Celik 2023; Gašević, Siemens, and Sadiq 2023; Ouyang and Jiao 2021; Wang et al. 2023).”
Understanding management educators’ perspectives on AI adoption: A qualitative study
Shahzad, F., Avunduk, Z. B., Ullah, Z., & Arslan, A. (2025) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2025.101274 · Cited by 20
Waluyo, B., & Rouaghe, F. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251362998 · Cited by 27
De Silva, D., Jayatilleke, S., El-Ayoubi, M., Issadeen, Z., Moraliyage, H., & Mills, N. (2024) · Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction · doi:10.3390/make6020051 · Cited by 14
“Intentional design is vital for the provision of structure and support for learners required during the learning process [37], particularly in the context of the Generative AI environment.”
BackgroundUse of ChatGPT in Higher Education: A Study with Graduate Students
Costa, R., Costa, A. L., & Carvalho, A. A. A. (2024) · EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-52296-3_7 · Cited by 15
Students' Use of the Artificial Intelligence Language Model in their Learning Process
Niedbał, R., Sokołowski, A., & Wrzalik, A. (2023) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2023.10.299 · Cited by 19
Exploring the Use of Generative AI in Education: Broadening the Scope
Jahić, I., Ebner, M., Schön, S., & Edelsbrunner, S. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61691-4_19 · Cited by 15
Exploring Student Perceptions and Acceptance of ChatGPT in Enhanced AI-Assisted Learning
Sukirman, S., Supriyanto, E., Setiawan, A., Chamsudin, A., Yuliana, I., & Wantoro, J. (2024) · International Conference on Smart Computing, IoT and Machine Learning (SIML) · doi:10.1109/siml61815.2024.10578145 · Cited by 12
“Additionally, AI can assist in automating administrative tasks for educators, allowing them to focus more on teaching and mentoring students [7].”
BackgroundMarcel, F., & Kang, P. (2024) · Discourse and Writing/Rédactologie · doi:10.31468/dwr.1051 · Cited by 12
“However, there are also affordances of the use of AI tools for second language writers which may provide positive contributions to the learning process rather than hindrances and negative repercussions (Gašević et al., 2023; Warschauer et al., 2023).”
BackgroundKalogiannidis, S., Patitsa, C. D., & Chalaris, M. (2024) · WSEAS TRANSACTIONS ON BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS · doi:10.37394/23207.2024.21.157 · Cited by 15
“However, it is important to look at integrating NLP capabilities into E-commerce chatbots given the possible advantages and untapped prospects, [27], [28].”
Fostering Pre-Service Teachers’ AI Literacy through School Implications
Nuangchalerm, P., Prachagool, V., Saregar, A., & Yunus, Y. M. (2024) · Journal of Philology and Educational Sciences · doi:10.53898/jpes2024327 · Cited by 17
Mannila, L., Hällström, J., Nordlöf, C., Heintz, F., Sperling, K., & Stenliden, L. (2025) · Australasian Computing Education Conference · doi:10.1145/3716640.3716650 · Cited by 21
Quantum leap in medical mentorship: exploring ChatGPT’s transition from textbooks to terabytes
Chokkakula, S., Chong, S., Yang, B., Jiang, H., Yu, J., Han, R., Attitalla, I. H., Yin, C., & Zhang, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2025.1517981 · Cited by 12
Ética en la implementación de tecnologías emergentes en entornos educativos
Delgado, J. C. V., Quinde, M. A. L., Padilla, B. A. M., & Delgado, L. A. V. (2025) · Multidisciplinary Latin American Journal (MLAJ) · doi:10.62131/mlaj-v3-n2-010 · Cited by 12
Advancing peer learning with learning analytics and artificial intelligence
Noroozi, O., Schunn, C. D., Schneider, B., & Banihashem, S. K. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-025-00559-5 · Cited by 22
“More importantly, the recent advancement of AI—particularly generative AI (GenAI)— has demonstrated significant potential to support teaching and learning (Debets et al., 2025; Gašević et al., 2023; Ogunleye et al., 2024).”
Vademecum of artificial intelligence tools applied to the teaching of languages
Blanco, B. M., Ramos, E. Á., Biel, L. A., & Collantes, M. P. (2024) · Journal of Technology and Science Education · doi:10.3926/jotse.2522 · Cited by 11
The Importance of Collaboration Between Human Intelligence and GenAI in Digitalization of Education
Yakin, A. M. A., Rasyid, A. R., Massyat, M., Muthmainnah, M., Aquino, A. B., Noche, T. H., & Cardoso, L. (2024) · Advances in computer and electrical engineering book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-5762-0.ch006 · Cited by 11
“That is scary!”: consumer perceptions and discourses on ChatGPT
Fares, O. H. (2025) · Qualitative Market Research An International Journal · doi:10.1108/qmr-07-2024-0122 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Gašević, D., Siemens, G., & Sadiq, S.
- Affiliations
- Monash University (AU)
- University of South Australia (AU)
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Gašević, Dragan
- Siemens, George
- Sadiq, Shazia
- Venue
- Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2023
- Volume
- 4
- Pages
- 100130
- ISSN
- 2666-920X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4319072032
- Cited by
- 234
- References
- 19
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 90 · 2024: 84 · 2023: 27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Monash University Research Portal (Monash University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UniSA Research Outputs Repository (University of South Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Australian Research Council (DP210100060, DP220101209)
- Jacobs Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Health Informatics › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
- Keywords
- artificial intelligence in education, student empowerment, ChatGPT, DALL-E, explainable AI, design for learning, learning theory, data ownership, AI literacy, education policy, learning and teaching practices
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