Towards more flexibility and transparency in life cycle inventories for Lithium-ion batteries
Open accessAbstract
Electric vehicles are gaining increasing room in the global market, since they are seen amongst the most promising solutions to cope with the growing concerns related to climate change and environmental pollution. The successful evolution of the transportation sector towards electro-mobility depends on the battery chemistry and technology, and its environmental impacts. However, the poor availability of data at the commercial production scale and the diversity in modelling choices make evaluating the environmental impacts of Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) difficult and uncertain. We aim at contributing to the creation of flexible and transparent life cycle inventories (LCI) of LIB for background databases by means of a consequently modular approach that will be applicable in the future as common framework to model new generations of LIB. In the present paper, we focus on (i) compiling modular LCI datasets of current and near-future market LIB chemistries, namely NMC111, NMC811 and NCA, by using the most recent data from existing sources, and (ii) exemplarily assessing the environmental impacts of the three modelled chemistries. This assessment takes into consideration a wide range of impact categories, with a focus on climate change and the comparison with the available literature in the sector. The whole is complemented with several sensitivity analyses, which show the relevance of transparency when making choices in compiling the LCI.
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The raw material sector is one of the most significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions of LIB cell production.
“The raw material sector is one of the most significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions of LIB cell production.95,96”
From Current and Future Impacts of Lithium Carbonate from Brines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model (2025) · cites this paper as [96]
Section 3.2 identifies cathode materials and the primary-copper current collector as having high environmental burdens at cell level, and traces much of the cathode precursor’s impact to cobalt and nickel sulfates. It discusses climate-change impacts within the cathode active material, but does not establish that the raw-material sector as a whole is among the largest contributors to greenhouse-gas emissions from cell production. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMultiple studies emphasize the range of reported or modeled GHG emissions related to Li-ion battery production.
“Multiple studies emphasize the range of reported or modeled GHG emissions related to Li-ion battery production (e.g., Raugei and Winfield 2019; Crenna et al. 2021).”
From Regionalized life cycle assessment of present and future lithium production for Li-ion batteries (2022) · cites this paper as Crenna et al. 2021
1 kWh of LIB cells is equivalent to 5.1 and 4.8 kg of NMC111 and NMC811 cells, respectively.
“the production of 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) LIB cells, which is equivalent to 5.1 and 4.8 kg NMC111 and NMC811 cells, respectively (Crenna et al., 2021).”
From Global warming potential of lithium-ion battery cell production: Determining influential primary and secondary raw material supply routes (2023) · cites this paper as Crenna et al., 2021
LIB life-cycle assessment studies are sensitive to modelling assumptions and system boundary choices.
“but they are known to be sensitive to modelling assumptions and system boundary choices19,22,23.”
From Carbon footprint distributions of lithium-ion batteries and their materials (2024) · cites this paper as [22]
Data availability and access continue to pose critical challenges.
“Additionally, data availability and access continue to pose critical challenges22,23,54.”
From Carbon footprint distributions of lithium-ion batteries and their materials (2024) · cites this paper as [22]
The energy densities for conversion are taken as scalars from recent work35 and are in line with the original work22 from 2021 that, in turn, builds the basis for the current Ecoinvent inventory (NMC: 0.25 kWh kg−1 and LFP: 0.16 kWh kg−1).
“The energy densities for conversion are taken as scalars from recent work35 and are in line with the original work22 from 2021 that, in turn, builds the basis for the current Ecoinvent inventory (NMC: 0.25 kWh kg−1 and LFP: 0.16 kWh kg−1).”
From Carbon footprint distributions of lithium-ion batteries and their materials (2024) · cites this paper as [22]
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Use of Process Simulation in LCA of Mineral Raw Materials Production: A Critical Review
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Life cycle comparison of industrial-scale lithium-ion battery recycling and mining supply chainsPreprint
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Life cycle comparison of industrial-scale lithium-ion battery recycling and mining supply chainsPreprint
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Life cycle comparison of industrial-scale lithium-ion battery recycling and mining supply chainsPreprint
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Integrating ESG Strategies for Corporate Sustainability: Global Practices and Sectoral Insights
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Prospective Life Cycle Assessment of Future Patented Li-Ion Batteries
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What drives electric vehicle owners to choose official end-of-life battery recycling channels?
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Life cycle assessment and sustainability
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- Authors
- Crenna, E., Gauch, M., Widmer, R., Wäger, P., & Hischier, R.
- Affiliations
- Empa (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Crenna, Eleonora
- Venue
- Resources, Conservation and Recycling
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-07
- Volume
- 170
- Pages
- 105619
- ISSN
- 0921-3449 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3160822404
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 6
- FWCI
- 5.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Resources Conservation and Recycling (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DORA Empa (Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (Empa)) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- BOA (University of Milano-Bicocca) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Horizon 2020 (814464)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
- Keywords
- lithium-ion batteries, life cycle inventory, LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2, NMC811, NCA cathode, battery chemistry, electric vehicles, environmental impact, climate change impacts, data availability, sensitivity analysis
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