Cited by 1,049Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesVisual Attention and Saliency DetectionNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 144 of the 144 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 103 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis

Open access

Armstrong, Thomas, Olatunji, Bunmi O.·2012·Clinical Psychology Review

DOI 10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.004PMC PMC3556338

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Abstract

A large body of research has demonstrated that affective disorders are characterized by attentional biases for emotional stimuli. However, this research relies heavily on manual reaction time (RT) measures that cannot fully delineate the time course and components of attentional bias. Eye tracking technology, which allows relatively direct and continuous measurement of overt visual attention, may provide an important supplement to RT measures. This article reviews eye tracking research on anxiety and depression, evaluating the experimental paradigms and eye movement indicators used to study attentional biases. Also included is a meta-analysis of extant eye tracking research (33 experiments; N=1579) on both anxiety and depression. Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing and visual search, and showed difficulty disengaging from threat in visual search tasks, but not during free viewing. In contrast, depressed individuals were not characterized by vigilance for threat during free viewing, but were characterized by reduced orienting to positive stimuli, as well as reduced maintenance of gaze on positive stimuli and increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli. Implications of these findings for theoretical accounts of attentional bias in anxiety and depression are discussed, and avenues for future research using eye-tracking technology are outlined.

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TL;DR

This meta-analytic review synthesizes 33 eye-tracking experiments (N = 1579) on attentional biases in anxiety and depression. Anxiety was linked to increased vigilance for threat, while depression was linked to reduced orienting to and maintenance of positive stimuli and increased maintenance of dysphoric stimuli.

Key findings

Anxious individuals showed an orienting bias toward threat in free viewing compared with non-anxious individuals (k = 20; g = .47, p < .001, CI = .25, .69; FSN = 203), but no significant orienting bias toward pleasant stimuli (k = 11; g = .11, p = .38).
Depressed individuals did not show an orienting bias toward threat (k = 4; g = −.01, p = .95), but showed reduced orienting toward pleasant stimuli (k = 6; g = −.24, p < .05, CI = −.47, −.004; FSN = 6).
In free viewing, anxious individuals did not differ overall in initial maintenance of gaze on threat (k = 16; g = −.17, p = .26), though spider phobia showed decreased maintenance (k = 3; g = −1.02, p < .001) and PTSD showed marginally increased maintenance (k = 2; g = .60, p = .05).
In visual search, anxious individuals fixated threatening targets faster (k = 4; g = −.59, p < .04) and maintained attention longer on threatening distractors (k = 5; g = .54, p < .01); depressed individuals showed longer extended maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli (k = 6; g = .46, p < .01) and less on positive stimuli (k = 6; g = −.80, p < .001).

Methods

PsycINFO and PubMed were searched for eye-tracking studies of anxiety or depression in adults; inclusion required eye tracking (video-based infrared or electro-oculography), adult anxiety/depression, and simultaneous emotional and neutral stimuli in regular arrays competing for attention.
The meta-analysis included 33 experiments with 1579 participants (anxious N = 563; non-anxious N = 532; depressed N = 162; non-depressed N = 257; unselected N = 65); 28 experiments used free viewing (N = 1337) and 5 used visual search in anxiety (N = 242).
Effect sizes used Hedges’s g with random-effects models; heterogeneity was tested with Q and I², moderators with categorical and meta-regression analyses, and publication bias with fail-safe N.

Limitations

The paper states that eye tracking measures overt attention only and may miss covert attentional allocation, especially for the maintenance hypothesis; free viewing studies may fail to observe maintenance biases if they occur covertly before initial fixation.
The paper states that several analyses relied on small numbers of studies, including depression orienting (k = 4), depression positive orienting (k = 6), depression extended maintenance (k = 6), and visual search (k = 5, mostly spider phobia k = 4), limiting generalizability.
The paper states that few studies examined threat beyond 3 seconds, so the full time course of attentional bias could not be realized; evident from the text, anxiety analyses showed significant heterogeneity and moderator analyses provided limited explanation.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.004

Cites

144 of 144 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

19 tests recomputed · 1 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

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Show all 132 claims

It may state two separate claims as one. 56
Probably not a substantial claim. 33

In the paper
“This bias appears to be specific to threatening stimuli, as anxious individuals did not show an orienting bias towards positive stimuli compared to non-anxious individuals, as would be predicted under the emotionality hypothesis (Calvo & Avero, 2005).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Calvo & Avero, 2005
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present review integrates a total of 33 eye tracking experiments with 1579 participants”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 1,579
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Eye tracking has the potential to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This finding is also consistent with Peckham et al.’s (2010) recent review, which found reduced initial attention allocation to positive stimuli in depressed individuals (c.f., Derakshan et al., 2009b).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham et al.’s (2010) source
- Not checked yetcites Derakshan et al., 2009b
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The sustained maintenance of gaze on real spiders found byLange et al. (2004) contrasts with the sustained avoidance of gaze on mere images of spiders found over 3 s (Hermans et al., 1999; Rinck & Becker, 2006), 9 s (Pflugshaupt et al., 2007) and 60 s (Rinck & Becker, 2006) trials.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hermans et al., 1999 source
- Not checked yetcites Rinck & Becker, 2006
- Not checked yetcites Pflugshaupt et al., 2007 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This finding is consistent with a recent meta-analysis of RT studies of attentional bias in depression, which found no bias for threatening stimuli in depressed compared to non-depressed individuals (Peckham et al., 2010; see also Mogg & Bradley, 2005).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham et al., 2010 source
- Not checked yetcites Mogg & Bradley, 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, effect sizes were mostly consistent across studies of depression, and the combined effects were largely consistent with RT research on attentional biases in depression (Peckham et al., 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham et al., 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a smaller literature suggesting an attentional bias for dysphoric stimuli and possible neglect of positive stimuli in depression (Peckham, McHugh, & Otto, 2010)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham, McHugh, & Otto, 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In research on anxiety disorders, it is still unclear to what extent increased processing of threat reflects facilitated orienting toward threat versus difficulty disengaging attention from threat (Weierich, Treat, & Hollingworth, 2008).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Weierich, Treat, & Hollingworth, 2008
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“in naturalistic viewing, EMs are the primary means of attentional selection, with covert attention largely relegated to guiding EMs (Hayhoe & Ballard, 2005; Findlay & Gilchrist, 2003).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hayhoe & Ballard, 2005
- Not checked yetcites Findlay & Gilchrist, 2003
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“An orienting bias for threat in free viewing did not characterize depressed individuals compared to non-depressed individuals, suggesting that vigilance for threat is specific to anxiety (Mogg & Bradley, 2005).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mogg & Bradley, 2005 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The within-groups effects alone were not interpretable, as the search conditions without threatening stimuli were not always matched for difficulty with the conditions containing distractors (e.g., Miltner et al., 2004).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Miltner et al., 2004 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas emotional stimuli can undermine endogenous control in the initial maintenance of gaze, such stimulus-driven effects appear to wane quickly in the later maintenance of gaze (Nummenmaa, et al., 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > EM indicators of attentional bias in depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nummenmaa, et al., 2006 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas an exogenous orienting bias for threatening targets would result in fewer fixations on neutral distractors, facilitated detection of threatening targets could also be achieved through shorter fixations on neutral distractors (c.f. Rinck & Becker, 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rinck & Becker, 2006
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Threats related to traumatic events (combat: Kimble et al., 2012; physical assault: Felmingham et al., 2011) present greater urgency and danger compared to spiders, and thus may be more difficult to ignore.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kimble et al., 2012
- Not checked yetcites Felmingham et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As Nummenmaa and colleagues (2006) note, reflexive saccades typical of purely exogenous capture (e.g., resulting from the sudden onset of a stimulus with a sharply contrasting basic feature) have a latency of 150 to 175 ms (Rayner, 1998).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nummenmaa and colleagues (2006)
- Not checked yetcites Rayner, 1998 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Gaze avoidance may be particularly strong in spider phobia because spider fearful individuals find spiders disgusting (e.g., Mulkens, de Jong, & Merckelbach, 1996), and may be revolted by the perceptual features of spiders (Royzman & Sabini, 2001).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mulkens, de Jong, & Merckelbach, 1996
- Not checked yetcites Royzman & Sabini, 2001
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, an alternative explanation is that anxious individuals decide whether or not to sustain attention on threat according to a cost-benefit analysis.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: fails
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
In the paper
“Inhibitory control deficits related to anxiety (Eysenck et al., 2007) may be more threat-specific in the engagement of attention compared to the shifting of attention because more information is available once a stimulus is engaged, reducing ‘false alarms.’”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eysenck et al., 2007 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This finding is consistent with RT research suggesting that when spider phobics anticipate the possibility of a spider distractor, the stimulus-driven system becomes dominant, leading to increased exogenous shifting to all distractors (Devue, Belopolsky, & Theeuwes, 2011).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Devue, Belopolsky, & Theeuwes, 2011
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, these individuals may feel compelled to continue monitoring more urgent danger cues (e.g., a live tarantula in a nearby box) at the cost of increased anxiety.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: fails
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
In the paper
“Although this finding could reflect more frequent shifting of gaze to threatening distractors (Miltner et al., 2008), rather than difficulty disengaging gaze from these distractors (Rinck & Becker, 2006), Gerdes, Alpers, and Pauli (2008) found that spider phobics were slower to detect a neutral target due to longer fixations rather than more frequent fixations on a spider distractor, suggesting”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gerdes, Alpers, and Pauli (2008)
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In tripartite structural theories of internalizing disorders (e.g., Clark & Watson, 1991), the development of anxiety and depression can be understood in terms of a general factor (e.g., negative affect or neuroticism) that confers risk for both disorders, as well as disorder-specific factors, such as anxious arousal or low positive affect, which specifically confer risk for anxiety or depression,”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Clark & Watson, 1991 source
- Not checked yetcites Oehlberg, Revelle, & Mineka, 2011
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Derakshan, Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, and Eysenck (2009) found that anxious individuals were able to execute saccades away from a threatening face as effectively as non-anxious individuals (i.e., with similar error rates); however, their correct saccades away from threatening faces had longer latencies, suggesting less efficiency disengaging covert attention from threatening faces in order to”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Derakshan, Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, and Eysenck (2009)
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As Berggren and Derakshan (in press) explain, anxious individuals may be able to disengage attention as effectively as non-anxious individuals in certain contexts, but such disengagement is less efficient, as anxious individuals apply more effort in order to compensate for attentional control deficits.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Berggren and Derakshan (in press)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This additional effort may compensate for, and thus conceal, difficulty disengaging attention from threat in anxious individuals (Ansari & Derakshan, 2011b), reducing the sensitivity of free viewing tasks in detecting this bias.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ansari & Derakshan, 2011b
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Given that anxious individuals rate threatening stimuli as more unpleasant (e.g., Rinck & Becker, 2006), and have been observed to voluntarily terminate exposure to threatening images sooner compared to non-anxious individuals (Tolin, Lohr, Lee, & Sawchuk, 1999), it follows that anxious individuals have a greater affective incentive to disengage attention from threat, and may exert more effort”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rinck & Becker, 2006
- Not checked yetcites Tolin, Lohr, Lee, & Sawchuk, 1999
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, training attention over longer viewing windows (e.g., 3 s, 4.5 s; Wells & Beevers, 2010) appears to be more effective at modifying attentional bias in depression and reducing symptoms of depression, compared to training over a shorter viewing period (1.5 s; Baert, De Raedt, Schacht, & Koster, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wells & Beevers, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Baert, De Raedt, Schacht, & Koster, 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A positivity bias appears to promote resilience (see Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2011), and initial evidence suggests that biases for positive stimuli can be induced through training and may have beneficial effects (Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2008).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2011 source
- Not checked yetcites Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2008
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These authors cite Fox et al.’s (2001) spatial cueing study, which found greater difficulty disengaging covert attention from incongruent threat cues presented at 100 ms or 250 ms SOAs in anxious individuals compared to controls.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fox et al.’s (2001) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Concerns have been raised about training attention away from threat in anxiety, as it could engender attentional avoidance of threat, which is believed to impair emotional processing and maintain anxiety (Koster, Baert, Bockstaele, & De Raedt, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Koster, Baert, Bockstaele, & De Raedt, 2010
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, Koster et al., (2010) found that training attention away from threat did not affect vigilance for threat in the modified dot probe (100 ms SOA); however, it did lead to later avoidance of threat (1500 ms SOA), a bias similar to that observed in spider phobia in the present meta-analysis.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Koster et al., (2010) source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Deldin, Deveney, Kim, Casas, and Best (2001) found that individuals with major depressive disorder show a reduced slow wave (SW) component while maintaining positive adjectives in working memory, compared to controls.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Deldin, Deveney, Kim, Casas, and Best (2001)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recently there have been a number of studies demonstrating that training attention away from threat leads to functional improvement in anxiety (Hallion & Ruscio, 2011), and one study suggests an analogous effect related to dysphoric stimuli in depression (Wells & Beevers, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hallion & Ruscio, 2011 source
- Not checked yetcites Wells & Beevers, 2010
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the unweighted version of the dot probe (which is used as a control condition in training studies), EMs to either cue have been found to occur on 30% of trials overall; some individuals make EMs on more than half of trials, whereas others hardly make any EMs (Bradley, Mogg, & Millar, 2000).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bradley, Mogg, & Millar, 2000
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Behavioral research has also found that depression is characterized by decreased maintenance of positive stimuli in working memory relative to controls (Levens & Gotlib, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Levens & Gotlib, 2010
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Likewise, shorter fixations on threat, but not increased overall dwell time, has been found in contamination fear (Armstrong et al., 2012)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Armstrong et al., 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the analysis of vigilance for threat in visual search tasks, the absence of an initial orienting bias for threat in anxiety suggests that such boundary conditions are present, and likely depend on one of these factors or their interaction (Acunzo & Henderson, 2011).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Acunzo & Henderson, 2011
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Basic research suggests that the ability of threatening stimuli to capture gaze is affected by how many competing stimuli are present (perceptual load; Yates et al., 2010) and how far into the periphery stimuli are presented (eccentricity; Calvo, Nummenmaa, & Hyönä, 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yates et al., 2010 source
- Not checked yetcites Calvo, Nummenmaa, & Hyönä, 2006
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pflugshaupte et al. (2005) embedded spiders in images of household scenes and found evidence of avoidance in the distance between a fixation’s coordinates and the nearest spider; further, they examined this relationship as a function of the ordinal number of the fixation”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pflugshaupte et al. (2005)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Sears et al. (2010) found that depressed individuals were slower initiating saccades away from dysphoric images, but not other image types (i.e., threatening, pleasant, neutral) compared to non-depressed individuals, a maintenance bias that was not revealed in a free viewing condition of their study.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sears et al. (2010) source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present meta-analytic findings suggest that increased maintenance of gaze on threat in anxiety is best observed in a task in which all participants are explicitly required to disengage attention from threat.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: fails
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat.

81 of 81

The paper relies on this without support.
Eye tracking has the potential to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases.
“Given the potential of eye tracking to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases, a meta-analysis was conducted on the extant literature.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
“Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat.
“In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat”

3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

Inconsistent p-value across alpha = .05: Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05
Major
The paper reports p < .05 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .338. The two fall on opposite sides of alpha = .05. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .338
Inconsistent p-value: Q (5) = .66, p = .97
Minor
The paper reports p = .97 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .985. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .97 · recomputed p = .985
Inconsistent p-value: Q (3) = .55, p = .95
Minor
The paper reports p = .95 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .908. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .95 · recomputed p = .908
Inconsistent p-value: Q (5) = 4.75, p = .55
Minor
The paper reports p = .55 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .447. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .55 · recomputed p = .447
Inconsistent p-value: Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05
Minor
The paper reports p = .05 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .060. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .060
Inconsistent p-value: Q (2) = .05, p = .79
Minor
The paper reports p = .79 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .975. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .79 · recomputed p = .975

6 of 6

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

Doesn’t add upQ(4) = 4.54reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .338The two fall on opposite sides of .05
“Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05”
Doesn’t add upQ(3) = 0.55reported p = .95 · recomputed p = .908
“Q (3) = .55, p = .95”
Doesn’t add upQ(5) = 4.75reported p = .55 · recomputed p = .447
“Q (5) = 4.75, p = .55”
Doesn’t add upQ(1) = 3.54reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .060
“Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05”
Doesn’t add upQ(2) = 0.05reported p = .79 · recomputed p = .975
“Q (2) = .05, p = .79”
Doesn’t add upQ(5) = 0.66reported p = .97 · recomputed p = .985
“Q (5) = .66, p = .97”
ConsistentQ(19) = 47.09reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (19) = 47.09, p < .001”
ConsistentQ(10) = 17.66reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .061
“Q (10) = 17.66, p = .06”
ConsistentQ(1) = 6.72reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010
“Q (1) = 6.72, p = .01”
ConsistentQ(5) = 8.78reported p = .12 · recomputed p = .118
“Q (5) = 8.78, p = .12”
ConsistentQ(15) = 58.08reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (15) = 58.08, p < .001”
ConsistentQ(4) = 24.13reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (4) = 24.13, p < .001”
ConsistentQ(4) = 23.45reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (4) = 23.45, p < .001”
ConsistentQ(1) = 0.1reported p = .76 · recomputed p = .752
“Q (1) = .10, p = .76”
ConsistentQ(5) = 1.9reported p = .86 · recomputed p = .863
“Q (5) = 1.9, p = .86”
ConsistentQ(5) = 9.77reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .082
“Q (5) = 9.77, p = .08”
ConsistentQ(1) = 4.4reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .036
“Q (1) = 4.40, p < .05”
ConsistentQ(3) = 10.89reported p < .02 · recomputed p = .012
“Q (3) = 10.89, p < .02”
ConsistentQ(4) = 8.28reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .082
“Q (4) = 8.28, p = .08”

19 of 19

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

Incorrect heterogeneity degrees of freedom for social anxiety studies
Minor
A heterogeneity Q test across seven studies has k − 1 = 6 degrees of freedom, not the reported 4.
Reported 4 · recomputed 6
Discussion calls a nonsignificant overall result marginal
Minor
The discussion describes an overall marginal tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat, but the results state that the overall group difference was not significant (p = .26).
PTSD confidence interval is inconsistent with its effect size
Minor
The two reported confidence limits have a midpoint of −.60 and do not contain the reported effect size of +.60.
Reported 0.6 · recomputed -0.6
Incorrect heterogeneity degrees of freedom for OCD studies
Minor
A heterogeneity Q test across two studies has k − 1 = 1 degree of freedom, not the reported 4.
Reported 4 · recomputed 1
Dysphoric-orienting confidence interval is not centered on its effect size
Minor
The reported confidence limits have a midpoint of .045, not the reported Hedges's g of .18. This difference exceeds rounding to the printed precision.
Reported 0.18 · recomputed 0.045
Conflicting counts of orienting-variable types
Minor
The methods count 17 event-related and 3 epoch-related vigilance analyses, while the results count 16 and 4, respectively, for the 20-study anxiety orienting analysis.

6 of 6

Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
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Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,417
Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.).
Lachenbruch, P. A., & Cohen, J. (1989) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2290095 · Cited by 37,421
Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis
Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2002) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1186 · Cited by 36,763 · cited 2×
“…that variance in effect sizes around the combined effect size cannot be completely accounted for by sampling error; the I2 statistic estimates the percentage of this variance that is due to between-studies variability (25%=low, 50%=medium, and 75%=high heterogeneity; Higgins & Thompson, 2002).”
BackgroundMethod
Conducting Meta-Analyses in R with the metafor Package
Viechtbauer, W. (2010) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v036.i03 · Cited by 20,464 · cited 1×
“Forest plots were generated using the metafor package for R statistical software (Viechtbauer, 2010).”
Method
Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain
Corbetta, M., & Shulman, G. L. (2002) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn755 · Cited by 12,881 · cited 3×
“The stimulus-driven system responds to unattended, motivationally-relevant events, enabling their detection through automatic shifts in attention (Corbetta & Shulman, 2002).”
Background
Book Reviews: Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis Larry V. Hedges and Ingram Olkin New York: Academic Press, 1985. xxii + 369 pp
Wasserman, S. S., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1988) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164953 · Cited by 10,377
Emotion circuits in the brain
LeDoux, J. E. (2000) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.155 · Cited by 8,444
The attention system of the human brain
Posner, M. I., & Petersen, S. E. (1990) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325 · Cited by 8,070 · cited 2×
“An abundance of behavioral and neuropsychological research suggests a fundamental distinction between a stimulus-driven system and a goal-directed system in the control of attention (Corbetta & Shulman, 2002; Posner & Peterson, 1990).”
Background
Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research
Rayner, K. (1998) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372 · Cited by 7,979 · cited 1×
“, resulting from the sudden onset of a stimulus with a sharply contrasting basic feature) have a latency of 150 to 175 ms (Rayner, 1998).”
Background

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Items 601–700 of 1,000

Measuring attentional bias using the dot-probe task in young women: Psychometric properties and feasibility of response-based computations, dwell time, and the N2pc component
Klonteig, S., Roalsø, E. S., Kraft, B., Moberget, T., Hilland, E., Mirtaheri, P., & Jonassen, R. (2025) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2025.102036 · Cited by 7
Appraisals of Interparental Conflict and Change in Attention to Emotion after Exposure to Marital Conflict
Lucas‐Thompson, R. G., Dumitrache, A., & Sparks, A. Q. (2017) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0721-9 · Cited by 7
Altered Working Memory Processing of Emotion in Adolescents with Dysphoric Symptomatology: An Eye Tracking Study
Wante, L., Braet, C., & Mueller, S. C. (2018) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-018-0803-y · Cited by 8
“Eye movement responses have the advantage of providing a precise and direct measure of cognitive control processes and are a reliable and sensitive measure in normative and in clinical populations of youth [40, 41].”
Background
What do luthiers look at? An eye tracking study on the identification of meaningful areas in historical violins
Dondi, P., Lombardi, L., Porta, M., Rovetta, T., Invernizzi, C., & Malagodi, M. (2019) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-019-7276-2 · Cited by 7
Conceptual and Historical Perspectives
Cloninger, S. C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.004 · Cited by 8
Visual attention during cognitive reappraisal in adolescent major depression: Evidence from two eye-tracking studies
Feldmann, L., Zsigo, C., Piechaczek, C., Schröder, P.-T., Wachinger, C., Schulte‐Körne, G., & Greimel, E. (2022) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2022.104099 · Cited by 7
High-Accuracy Contactless Detection of Eyes' Activities based on Short-Range Radar Sensing
Ma, L., Ye, Y., Gu, C., & Mao, J. (2022) · IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Biomedical Conference (IMBioC) · doi:10.1109/imbioc52515.2022.9790181 · Cited by 7
“In some disease studies, such as neurodegenerative disorders [3], depression [4], etc.”
Background
The Eyes as a Window to the Brain and Mind
Graham, L., Das, J., Moore, J., Godfrey, A., & Stuart, S. (2022) · Neuromethods · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-2391-6_1 · Cited by 7
Hybrid fusion model based on DBN and secondary classifier: Multimodal mild depression recognition using EEG and eye movement
Zhu, J., Xie, X., Yang, C., Wei, S., Li, X., & Hu, B. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine (BIBM) · doi:10.1109/bibm55620.2022.9995663 · Cited by 7
“In addition, Eye movement (EM) physiological signals have also been applied to research on depression recognition [5].”
Background
The improvement of attentional bias in individuals with problematic smartphone use through cognitive reappraisal: an eye-tracking study
Liu, D., & Yang, H. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-05356-9 · Cited by 8
“…as the first fixation dura - tion represents the component at the intersection of both top-down and bottom-up attentional processing (Nummen-maa et al., 2006 ), Armstrong and Olatunji ( 2012) suggest that cognitive components of attentional processing become increasingly prominent over time.”
Using the Research Domain Criteria Framework to Explore Associations Between MMPI–2–RF Constructs and Physiological Variables Assessed by Eye-Tracker Technology
McCord, D., Achee, M. C., Cannon, E. M. C., Harrop, T. M., & Poynter, W. D. (2016) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1228067 · Cited by 7
“It also could be that individuals with MDD focus less on positive stimuli because of their anhedonic nature, which makes them less sensitive to pleasant stimuli (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
Background
A Double-Blind Placebo Controlled Study of Intranasal Oxytocin’s Effect on Emotion Recognition and Visual Attention in Outpatients with Emotional Disorders
Rutter, L. A., Norton, D. J., Brown, B. S., & Brown, T. A. (2018) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-9974-x · Cited by 6
The role of TPH2 variant rs4570625 in shaping infant attention to social signals
Kataja, E., Leppänen, J. M., Kantojärvi, K., Pelto, J., Häikiö, T., Korja, R., Nolvi, S., Karlsson, H., Paunio, T., & Karlsson, L. (2020) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101471 · Cited by 11
Emotional distractors and attentional control in anxious youth: eye tracking and fMRI data
Smith, A. R., Haller, S. P., Haas, S., Pagliaccio, D., Behrens, B., Swetlitz, C., Bezek, J. L., Brotman, M. A., Leibenluft, E., Fox, N. A., et al. (2020) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2020.1816911 · Cited by 7
“Importantly, work suggests that this rapid threat detection can impair, rather than facilitate, task performance in anxious individuals (for relevant review see, Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
Background
Attentional processing of unpleasant stimuli in alexithymia: Early avoidance followed by attention maintenance bias
Leonidou, C., Constantinou, E., Panteli, M., & Panayiotou, G. (2022) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2022.2054531 · Cited by 7
“To alleviate participants’ fatigue, a blank screen was presented for 1.0/1.5/2.0s randomly after the end of each trial (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
MethodInfluential
Identification of Primary Facial Emotions in Relation to Level of Self-Criticism
Strnádelová, B., Halamová, J., & Kanovský, M. (2019) · Perception · doi:10.1177/0301006619870399 · Cited by 7
“The absence of a protective bias has been interpreted mainly as evidence of an insensitivity to a rewarding, pleasant, kind, or joyful expression on others’ faces (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
Background
Attentional biases to emotional faces among women with a history of single episode versus recurrent major depression
Foster, C. E., Owens, M., Kudinova, A. Y., & Gibb, B. E. (2020) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2020.1802228 · Cited by 7
“…are consistent with previous research demonstrating that currently depressed and at-risk individuals exhibit reduced attention to positive stimuli (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Disner et al., 2011), as well as blunted striatal activation response to both happy faces and socially rewarding stimuli…”
BackgroundResult
Is a Negative Attentional Bias in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder Explained by Comorbid Depression? An Eye-Tracking Study
Bergman, M. A., Vrijsen, J. N., Rinck, M., van Oostrom, I., Kan, C. C., Collard, R. M., van Eijndhoven, P., Vissers, C., & Schene, A. H. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-04880-6 · Cited by 9
Identifying depression with mixed features: the potential value of eye-tracking features
Liu, X., Chen, M., Ji, Y.-J., Chen, H.-B., Lin, Y.-Q., Xiao, Z., Guan, Q.-Y., Ou, W.-Q., Wang, Y.-Y., Xiao, Q.-L., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2025.1555630 · Cited by 6
Machine Learning, Physiological Signals, and Emotional Stress/Anxiety: Pitfalls and Challenges
Liu, Y., Palacio, M.-I., Bikki, T., Toledo, C., Ouyang, Y., Li, Z., Wang, Z., Toledo, F., Zeng, H., & Herrero, M. T. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app152111777 · Cited by 6
Initial Maintenance of Attention to Threat in Children with Social Anxiety Disorder? Findings from an Eye-Tracking Experiment
Schmidtendorf, S., Herwig, A., Wiedau, S., Asbrand, J., Tuschen‐Caffier, B., & Heinrichs, N. (2021) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-021-10244-2 · Cited by 6
Attentional bias in individuals with depression and adverse childhood experiences: influence of the noradrenergic system?
Kuehl, L. K., Deuter, C. E., Nowacki, J., Ueberrueck, L., Wingenfeld, K., & Otte, C. (2021) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-021-05969-7 · Cited by 6
“Mood congruent cognitive biases in the processing of emotional information, such as an attentional bias for negative stimuli (Armstrong and Olatunji 2012; Caseras et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Associations between the late positive potential and PTSD, anxiety, and depressive symptoms among trauma-exposed undergraduates
Fedorenko, E. J., Barnwell, P. V., Selby, E. A., & Contrada, R. J. (2023) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2023.108499 · Cited by 6
Anxiety symptoms and theory of mind in older and younger adults: curvilinearity moderated by age group
Braley, M. S., Thornton, A. E., & Thornton, W. L. (2022) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2022.2060183 · Cited by 8
Bias of Attentional Oscillations in Individuals with Subthreshold Depression: Evidence from a Pre-Cueing Facial Expression Judgment Task
Wu, W., Huang, X., Qi, X., & Lu, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192114559 · Cited by 6
“Another meta-analysis of attentional bias studies using eye tracking also found that depressed individuals were characterized by reduced orientation to positive stimuli [8].”
Background
State of the Science: Disgust and the Anxiety Disorders
Mitchell, B. J., & Olatunji, B. O. (2024) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2024.02.005 · Cited by 7
Self-citation
Neural activation changes following attention bias modification treatment or a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor for social anxiety disorder
Azriel, O., Arad, G., Tik, N., Weiser, M., Bloch, M., Garber, E., Lazarov, A., Pine, D. S., Tavor, I., & Bar‐Haim, Y. (2024) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291724001521 · Cited by 7
“…music reward therapy (GC-MRT), an eye-tracking-based attention bias modification (ABM) protocol designed to target threat-related attention in SAD (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Bar-Haim, Lamy, Pergamin, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2007; Lazarov, Abend, & Bar-Haim, 2016; Lazarov, Pine,…”
Depressive self-focus bias following failure: an eye-tracking study among individuals with clinical depression
Monéger, J., Harika-Germaneau, G., Jaafari, N., Doolub, D., Warck, L., Selimbegović, L., & Chatard, A. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1459831 · Cited by 5
“Eye-trackers are commonly employed to study how individuals direct their visual attention toward prominent elements in their surroundings (e.g., 34, 35).”
Background
The impact of disgust learning on memory processes for neutral stimuli: a classical conditioning approach
Söylemez, S., & Kapucu, A. (2024) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2024.2413359 · Cited by 6
“Disgust learning has been suggested to differ from other classical conditioning learnings (e.g. signal learning or expectancy learning) as it depends on evaluative conditioning (Armstrong et al., 2014, 2019; Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
Regulatory Effects of Reward Anticipation and Target on Attention Processing of Emotional Stimulation
Yao, Y., Xuan, Y., Wu, R., & Sang, B. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01170 · Cited by 6
“Therefore, in the emotion recognition task, the two systems work together, resulting in shorter RTs and higher FFRs in reward trials.”
BackgroundInfluential
Sustained Attention and Individual Differences in Adolescents’ Mood and Physiological Reactivity to Stress
Feurer, C., James, K. M., Foster, C. E., & Gibb, B. E. (2020) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00679-8 · Cited by 8
Personality, Preferences and Socioeconomic Behavior
Ferguson, E., Zhao, K., & Smillie, L. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.044 · Cited by 6
Eye movement pattern of attention bias to emotional stimuli in women with high premenstrual symptoms
Chen, L., Hou, L., & Zhou, R. (2021) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2021.101689 · Cited by 6
The KOALA-study: study protocol for a comprehensive study of cognitive biases in adolescent anorexia nervosa patients compared to healthy and clinical controls
Sfärlea, A., Lukas, L., Schulte‐Körne, G., & Platt, B. (2021) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-021-00494-6 · Cited by 7
Development and validation of the Attention Bias Questionnaire (ABQ)
Azriel, O., Britton, J. C., Dykan, C. D. G., Pine, D. S., & Bar‐Haim, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1905 · Cited by 6
A diffusion tensor imaging study in schizophrenia patients with clozapine induced obsessive compulsive symptoms
Bıçakcı, Ş., Oğuz, K. K., Eroğlu, E. Ö., Has, A. C., & Ertuğrul, A. (2022) · Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental · doi:10.1002/hup.2857 · Cited by 6
“According to the vigilance hypothesis, it is suggested that OCD patients are hypersensitive to obsession‐related stimuli and the perception threshold is lowered to identify and address OCD‐related stimuli (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
Background
Attentional biases in facial emotion processing in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis
Williams, T. F., Cohen, A. S., Sánchez-López, Á., Joormann, J., & Mittal, V. A. (2023) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-023-01582-1 · Cited by 6
“Indeed, individuals with depression may experience a variety of social cognitive impairments [36] and considerable effort has been put into developing socially relevant eye-tracking paradigms [37].”
Background
Social threat processing in adults and children: Faster orienting to, but shorter dwell time on, angry faces during visual search
Plate, R. C., Powell, T., Bedford, R., Smith, T. J., Bamezai, A., Wedderburn, Q., Broussard, A., Soesanto, N., Swetlitz, C., Waller, R. E., et al. (2023) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13461 · Cited by 6
Facial Expressions of Sentence Comprehension
Turan, C., Wang, Y., Lai, S.-C., Neergaard, K. D., & Lam, K. (2018) · IEEE International Conference on Digital Signal Processing (DSP) · doi:10.1109/icdsp.2018.8631633 · Cited by 6
“Recently, the studies have been started using eye tracking technology [19-22].”
BackgroundMethod
Attention to Peer Feedback Through the Eyes of Adolescents with a History of Anxiety and Healthy Adolescents
Rosen, D. K., Price, R. B., Ladouceur, C. D., Siegle, G. J., Hutchinson, E., Nelson, E. E., Stroud, L. R., Forbes, E. E., Ryan, N. D., Dahl, R. E., et al. (2019) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-019-00891-8 · Cited by 7
Attentional Bias for Faces in Relation to Severity of Depressive Symptoms: An Eye-Tracking Study
Figueiredo, G. R., Campos, D. P., Ripka, W. L., & Ulbricht, L. (2019) · World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, September 7 - 12, 2009, Munich, Germany · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-2119-1_63 · Cited by 6
State and Trait Rumination Effects on Overt Attention to Reminders of Errors in a Challenging General Knowledge Retrieval Task
Whiteman, R. C., & Mangels, J. A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02094 · Cited by 7
“Although this method can be particularly useful for informing questions regarding attention selection across multiple stimuli (see Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012), to date, only a few gaze fixation studies have been conducted for expressly studying the attentional mechanisms of rumination, and these…”
Method
Health anxiety and attentional control interact to predict uncertainty-related attentional biases
Rogers, T. A., Daniel, T. A., & Bardeen, J. R. (2021) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2021.101697 · Cited by 7
Temperament and Brain Networks of Attention
Rothbart, M. K., Posner, M. I., & Sheese, B. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.016 · Cited by 8
Modeling brain dynamics and gaze behavior: Starting point bias and drift rate relate to frontal midline theta oscillations
Castagna, P. J., van Noordt, S. J. R., Sederberg, P. B., & Crowley, M. J. (2023) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.119871 · Cited by 7
Beyond Face Value: Assessing the Factor Structure of an Eye-Tracking Based Attention Bias Task
McNamara, M. E., Hsu, K. J., McSpadden, B., Risom, S., Shumake, J., & Beevers, C. G. (2023) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-023-10395-4 · Cited by 6
The Embodiment of Cultural Meanings. Symbolic Universes as Forms of Life
Salvatore, S., Rochira, A., & Kharlamov, N. (2019) · Culture in policy making · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19497-0_8 · Cited by 6
Training Meta-Awareness to Modify Attentional Dyscontrol
Ruimi, L., Hendren, R. A., Amir, I., Zvielli, A., & Bernstein, A. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-01291-8 · Cited by 6
Accuracy in Person Perception
Biesanz, J. C., & Wallace, J. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.006 · Cited by 7
Distress Intolerance Moderation of Attention to Emotion: An Eye-Tracking Study
Macatee, R. J., McDermott, K. A., Albanese, B. J., Schmidt, N. B., & Cougle, J. R. (2017) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-017-9869-2 · Cited by 8
“…disengagement from negative stimuli refers to the degree to which such stimuli capture and hold attention, whereas initial orientation and facilitated engagement refers to the speed at which attention orients towards negative emotional stimuli (Armstrong and Olatunji 2012; Cisler and Koster 2010).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Tridimensional model of CBT: a transdiagnostic and transtheoretical pragmatic model
Özdel, K., & Türkçapar, M. H. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1555047 · Cited by 6
“However, in anxiety disorders, individuals are prone to spontaneously focus on threatening stimuli and have difficulty disengaging from them (Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012).”
SguiNet: Stimulus-Guided Depression Detection Network Based on Ocular Images
Yang, M., Tao, Y., Guo, Z., Shen, H., Weng, Z., & Hu, B. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2026.3653060 · Cited by 5
An Eye Tracking and Event-Related Potentials Study With Visual Stimuli for Adolescents Emotional Issues
Wang, Q., Wei, X., Dang, R., Zhu, F., Yin, S., & Hu, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.933793 · Cited by 5
Eye-tracking measurement of attention bias to social threat among youth: A replication and extension study
Byrne, M. E., Kirschner, S., Harrewijn, A., Abend, R., Lazarov, A., Liuzzi, L., Kircanski, K., Haller, S. P., Bar‐Haim, Y., & Pine, D. S. (2024) · Journal of Mood and Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.xjmad.2024.100075 · Cited by 5
“Indeed, prior literature in anxiety disorders finds biases across a range of emotions [11,26 – 29], including the emotion-pairs used in the current study to replicate methods of Abend et al. [14] and Harrewijn et al. [15].”
Reduced positive attentional bias in patients with borderline personality disorder compared with non-patients: results from a free-viewing eye-tracking study
Wenk, T., Günther, A.-C., Webelhorst, C., Kersting, A., Bodenschatz, C. M., & Suslow, T. (2024) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-024-00267-y · Cited by 5
“The multi-stimulus free-viewing task using facial, pictorial, or lexical stimuli constitutes an often applied paradigm in eye-tracking research that asks participants to observe images freely without constraints on attention [37].”
Background
Depression and emotion regulation strategy use moderate age-related attentional positivity bias
Faul, L., Bellaiche, L., Madden, D. J., Smoski, M. J., & LaBar, K. S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1427480 · Cited by 6
Perceived ability and influencing factors of the signage system for color vision deficiency groups: A case study of metro travel process
Yang, H., Zhang, Y., Yao, M., Li, Z., Yan, T., Wang, Z., & Li, Y. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105096 · Cited by 5
Acute effects of psilocybin on the dynamics of gaze fixations during visual aesthetic perception
Muller, S. L., Cavanna, F., de la Fuente, L., Bruno, N. M., D’Amelio, T. A., Pallavicini, C., & Tagliazucchi, E. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-10206-8 · Cited by 5
Autistic traits are associated with the functional connectivity of between—but not within—attention systems in the general population
Yoshimura, S., Kobayashi, K., Ueno, T., Miyagi, T., Oishi, N., Murai, T., & Fujiwara, H. (2020) · BMC Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/s12868-020-00603-2 · Cited by 6
Decreased intersubject synchrony in dynamic valence ratings of sad movie contents in dysphoric individuals
Li, X., Zhu, Y., Vuoriainen, E., Ye, C., & Astikainen, P. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-93825-1 · Cited by 5
Cross-cultural applicability of eye-tracking in assessing attention to emotional faces in preschool-aged children.
Nozadi, S. S., Aguiar, A., Du, R., Enright, E. A., Schantz, S. L., Miller, C. P., Rennie, B. J., Quetawki, M., MacKenzie, D. A., & Lewis, J. L. (2022) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0001124 · Cited by 5
Research on a New Intelligent and Rapid Screening Method for Depression Risk in Young People Based on Eye Tracking Technology
Tao, Z., Sun, N., Yuan, Z., Chen, Z., Liu, J., Wang, C., Li, S., Ma, X., Ji, B., & Li, K. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13101415 · Cited by 5
“Attention bias to emotional stimulation is not only the core feature of depression in patients but is also an important factor affecting the onset, maintenance, and recurrence of depression [8–10].”
Background
AttentionCARE: replicability of a BCI for the clinical application of augmented reality-guided EEG-based attention modification for adolescents at high risk for depression
Gall, R., Mcdonald, N., Huang, X., Wears, A., Price, R. B., Ostadabbas, S., Akçakaya, M., & Woody, M. L. (2024) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2024.1360218 · Cited by 5
Eye-tracking analysis of attentional disengagement in phobic and non-phobic individuals
Saalwirth, C., Stefani, M., Sauter, M., & Mack, W. (2024) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-024-02968-6 · Cited by 5
Attentional biases for dynamic stimuli in emerging adults with anxiety: A preliminary eye-tracking study
Burns, H., Hurst, A., Garay, P., Murray, N. E., Stewart, S. H., Mejia, J. M., Bagnell, A. L., Klein, R. M., & Meier, S. M. (2025) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2025.02.046 · Cited by 5
Linking volitional preferences for emotional information to social difficulties: A game approach using the microsoft kinect
Weng, M., Wall, C. A., Kim, E. S., Whitaker, L., Perlmutter, M., Wang, Q., Lebowitz, E. R., & Shic, F. (2015) · International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction and workshops · doi:10.1109/acii.2015.7344629 · Cited by 5
“Relationships observed between emotional ability and characteristics of neuropsychiatric conditions, such as social deficits associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) [4] or depression [5], motivate further exploration of tools that leverage responses to emotional information.”
Background
Comparing Thin-Slicing of Speech for Clinical Depression Detection
Liu, Z., Xiong, H., Li, X., Feng, L., & Zhan, L. (2018) · Conference proceedings/Conference proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics · doi:10.1109/smc.2018.00326 · Cited by 5
“Various methods have been studied for this goal, such as eye movement [6] ,electroencephalographic (EEG), speech, facial expression [7], etc.”
Method
Emotional SNARC: emotional faces affect the impact of number magnitude on gaze patterns
Blanco, I., Nieto, I., & Vázquez, C. (2020) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-020-01375-4 · Cited by 5
Attentional Bias for Imperfect Pictures in Perfectionism: An Eye-Movement Study
Li, J., Liu, X., Yu, B., Tang, W., & Liu, X. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566482 · Cited by 6
“They were, therefore, unable to capture the time course of attentional processes during exposure to stimuli (Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012).”
Background
Personality in Clinical Psychology
Widiger, T. A., & McCabe, G. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.042 · Cited by 5
States and Situations, Traits and Environments
Asendorpf, J. B., & Rauthmann, J. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.007 · Cited by 10
Early vigilance and improved processing efficiency to the test-related target in test anxiety: Evidence from the visual search task and eye-movements
Hu, C., Oei, T. P. S., Huang, Q., & Zhou, R. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02454-4 · Cited by 6
“…by the increased perceptual load (e.g. more display items) and greater stimulus competition associated with this paradigm, indicating that the most salient stimulus (e.g. highthreatening pictures) could be pop-out as the capacity of selective attention is limited (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Temporal predictions of negative anxiety response styles in depression risk
Taylor, D. L., Kraft, J. D., Deros, D. E., Hahn, B. J., Nagel, K. M., White, E. J., & Grant, D. M. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03987-y · Cited by 5
“For instance, data suggests that anxiety is linked to attentional bias toward threat, whereas depression is associated with difficulties disengaging with dysphoric stimuli (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Peckham et al., 2010).”
Lack of speeded disengagement from facial expressions of disgust in remitted major depressive disorder: Evidence from an eye-movement study
von Koch, L., Kathmann, N., & Reuter, B. (2022) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2022.104231 · Cited by 7
Enacting Happiness from Emotions and Moods
Laurent, É., Bague, K., Vegas, C., & Dartevelle, J. (2023) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.106954 · Cited by 5
Attentional bias for rejection and sad words in Chinese left‐behind children with depression
Peng, J., Li, J., Zhang, Y., Liang, L., Ye, G., & Xiao, W. (2023) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.13166 · Cited by 5
Are hoarding symptoms associated with interpersonally relevant attentional biases? A preliminary investigation
Hall, K. A. A., Stamatis, C. A., Shaw, A. M., & Timpano, K. R. (2019) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2019.100449 · Cited by 5
Euthymic patients with predominantly manic polarity avoid happy faces in a dot probe task
Wenzel, M., Althen, H., Veeh, J., & Reif, A. (2022) · International Journal of Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40345-022-00262-8 · Cited by 5
“In sum, a clear mood-congruent bias, as seems to be present in unipolar depression (Leppänen 2006; Joormann and Gotlib 2007; Armstrong and Olatunji 2012), cannot be assumed for acute depression in BD. Based on the hypothesis of Popovic and colleagues that residual symptoms may remain even in the…”
Background
Attentional processes associated with victimization history and posttraumatic symptomatology in women exposed to intimate partner violence
Matlow, R. B. (2013) · Digital Commons - DU (University of Denver) · Cited by 5
Study protocol for the EYEdentify project: An examination of gaze behaviour in autistic adults using a virtual reality-based paradigm
Jeppesen, A. C. E., Andresen, J., Parvaiz, R., Clemmensen, L., Jepsen, J. R. M., Hansen, D. W., & Glenthøj, L. B. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0316502 · Cited by 5
“Aberrant gaze patterns have been observed in a range of psychiatric conditions, such as affective disorders and schizophrenia [21,22,67].”
Early processing of traumatic material and contextual information in posttraumatic stress disorder and its relation to memory impairments
Zidda, F., Steiger-White, F., Winkelmann, T., Ruttorf, M., Andoh, J., Nees, F., & Flor, H. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-00322-w · Cited by 5
MSNet: Multimodal Self-attention Network for Depression Detection via Fusion of Eye Tracking and EEG
Zhu, F., Wu, B., Huo, Y., Dang, R., Hu, B., & Wang, Q. (2025) · ACM Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications (ETRA) · doi:10.1145/3715669.3723106 · Cited by 4
“The biosignal modes include eye tracking [Armstrong and Olatunji 2012; Skaramagkas et al. 2021], electrocardiogram (EOG) [Pan et al. 2021], and electroencephalography (EEG) [Yasin et al. 2021, 2023], the relationships between these modes can be categorized into three types: complementarity,…”
Impact of trait anxiety on computational mechanism of approach-avoidance conflict decision
Liu, H., Wang, J., Zhou, S., Zhou, X., Li, H., Dou, H., & Lei, Y. (2025) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2025.2519665 · Cited by 5
“Individuals with clinical and trait anxiety often exhibit heightened vigilance, leading to a greater emphasis on capturing attention using salient stimuli (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Richards et al., 2014; Robinson et al., 2013).”
Reconciling attentional bias in obsessive-compulsive disorder
Adamis, A. M., & Olatunji, B. O. (2024) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2024.100896 · Cited by 4
Self-citation
From antidepressants and psychotherapy to oxytocin, vagus nerve stimulation, ketamine and psychedelics: how established and novel treatments can improve social functioning in major depression
Kupferberg, A., & Hasler, G. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1372650 · Cited by 5
Associations between attentional biases for emotional images and rumination in depression
Quigley, L., Russell, K., Yung, C., Dobson, K. S., & Sears, C. R. (2024) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2024.2434158 · Cited by 4
“These findings are generally congruent with those of other studies that have compared the attentional biases of depressed and non-depressed participants to emotional faces (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Suslow et al., 2020).”
Sensors for Motor Neuroprosthetics
Ambrosini, E., Bejarano, N. C., & Pedrocchi, A. (2014) · Advances in bioinformatics and biomedical engineering book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6094-6.ch003 · Cited by 4
Sadness-associated eating styles and visual food cue reactivity: An eye-tracking investigation
Potthoff, J., & Schienle, A. (2022) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2022.101604 · Cited by 4
Examining Cognitive Biases Uniquely Associated with Schizotypy
Zahid, A., & Best, M. W. (2023) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000529742 · Cited by 7
“Anxiety is also associated with an attentional bias for threatening stimuli [28, 31] and an explicit memory bias for threatening information on recall tests [32].”
Background
Evaluation of gaze-to-object mapping algorithms for use in “real-world” translatable neuropsychological paradigms.
Liu, W., Andrade, G., Schulze, J. P., & Courtney, K. E. (2023) · Psychology & Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/pne0000324 · Cited by 4
Gaze and avoidant patterns of visual attention to aversive stimuli during fear habituation trial: A pilot eye tracking study
Takahashi, M., Kikuchi, M., Yamamoto, J., & Hirai, M. (2023) · Journal of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.jbct.2023.10.004 · Cited by 5
Eyetracking Correlated in the Matching Pairs Game
Gursesli, M. C., Calà, F., Tarchi, P., Frassineti, L., Guazzini, A., & Lanatà, A. (2023) · IEEE Gaming, Entertainment, and Media Conference (GEM) · doi:10.1109/gem59776.2023.10390418 · Cited by 4
“Eye tracking (ET) represents an alternative, non-invasive method that has been successfully applied in psychopathology [29], attention [30], computer science [31], imagination [32], and memory [33].”
Method
Pupillary Responses to Dynamic Negative Versus Positive Facial Expressions of Emotion in Children and Parents: Links to Depression and Anxiety
Aktar, E., Venetikidi, M., Bockstaele, B. V., der Giessen, D. V., & Pérez‐Edgar, K. E. (2024) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22522 · Cited by 5
A novel method for objective quantification of apathy based on gaze and physiological reactivity to stimuli presented in a virtual reality environment
Ravona‐Springer, R., Koren, O., Galor, N., Lapid, M., Bahat, Y., Fluss, R., Wilf, M., Zorani, S., Rosenblum, U., Beeri, M. S., et al. (2025) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1002/dad2.70020 · Cited by 4
“59 The method presently proposed for apathy measurement offers several key advantages.”
Isolating delayed attentional disengagement from biased orienting to signals of threat in anxiety – not there yet
Watson, P., Pearson, D., & Pelley, M. E. L. (2025) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2025.2459847 · Cited by 4
“…manual RT as dependent variable may be measuring the summation of both covert and overt disengagement effects whereas tasks that rely on eye-tracking metrics are only tapping into the effect of threatening stimuli on overt attentional disengagement (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Garner et al., 2006).”
Electrophysiological processing of happiness during conscious and sub-conscious awareness in depression
Soukhtanlou, M., Rostami, R., Salehinejad, M. A., Lavasani, M. G., Sharifi, A., & Hekmatmanesh, A. (2019) · Neurology Psychiatry and Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.npbr.2019.06.001 · Cited by 4
Emotion Measurement from Attention Analysis on Imagery in Virtual Reality
Paletta, L., Dini, A., & Pszeida, M. (2019) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20441-9_2 · Cited by 4
Attentional Control in Bilingualism: An Exploration of the Effects of Trait Anxiety and Rumination on Inhibition
Ouzia, J., Bright, P., & Filippi, R. (2019) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs9080089 · Cited by 4
“One method for testing the effects of anxiety on attentional control is the assessment of continuous overt visual attention via analysis of eye movements (saccades) [30,31] on the antisaccade task (note that the antisaccade task incorporates both pro- and antisaccade conditions) [32].”
Method
ELE - A Conversational Social Robot for Persons with Neuro-Developmental Disorders
Fisicaro, D., Garzotto, F., Gelsomini, M., & Pozzi, F. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29381-9_9 · Cited by 4
Relationships between attention to emotion and anxiety among a community sample of adolescents
Mullin, B. C., Holzman, J. B. W., Pyle, L. L., Perks, E. L., Chintaluru, Y., Gulley, L. D., Haraden, D. A., & Hankin, B. L. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720003360 · Cited by 5
“Attentional biases to the threat have repeatedly been linked to pathological anxiety (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Bar-Haim et al., 2007; Dudeney et al., 2015).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential

Authors: Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O.
Affiliations: Vanderbilt University (US)
Corresponding author: Armstrong, Thomas
ORCID: Armstrong, Thomas
Olatunji, Bunmi O.
Venue: Clinical Psychology Review
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2012-12
Volume: 32
Issue: 8
Pages: 704-723
ISSN: 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.004
PMC: PMC3556338
OpenAlex: W2104609554
Cited by: 1,049
References: 140
Citations by year: 2026: 71 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 105 · 2020: 148 · 2019: 92 · 2018: 84 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 1
FWCI: 5.24
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (F31MH087018)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Visual Attention and Saliency Detection
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords: eye tracking, attentional bias, mood disorders, anxiety, depression, threat vigilance, visual search, free viewing, emotional stimuli
MeSH terms: Anxiety Disorders, Arousal, Attention, Depressive Disorder, Emotions, Eye Movements, Facial Expression, Fixation, Ocular, Humans, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Reaction Time

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Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis

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