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Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis
Open accessAbstract
A large body of research has demonstrated that affective disorders are characterized by attentional biases for emotional stimuli. However, this research relies heavily on manual reaction time (RT) measures that cannot fully delineate the time course and components of attentional bias. Eye tracking technology, which allows relatively direct and continuous measurement of overt visual attention, may provide an important supplement to RT measures. This article reviews eye tracking research on anxiety and depression, evaluating the experimental paradigms and eye movement indicators used to study attentional biases. Also included is a meta-analysis of extant eye tracking research (33 experiments; N=1579) on both anxiety and depression. Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing and visual search, and showed difficulty disengaging from threat in visual search tasks, but not during free viewing. In contrast, depressed individuals were not characterized by vigilance for threat during free viewing, but were characterized by reduced orienting to positive stimuli, as well as reduced maintenance of gaze on positive stimuli and increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli. Implications of these findings for theoretical accounts of attentional bias in anxiety and depression are discussed, and avenues for future research using eye-tracking technology are outlined.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This meta-analytic review synthesizes 33 eye-tracking experiments (N = 1579) on attentional biases in anxiety and depression. Anxiety was linked to increased vigilance for threat, while depression was linked to reduced orienting to and maintenance of positive stimuli and increased maintenance of dysphoric stimuli.
Key findings
- Anxious individuals showed an orienting bias toward threat in free viewing compared with non-anxious individuals (k = 20; g = .47, p < .001, CI = .25, .69; FSN = 203), but no significant orienting bias toward pleasant stimuli (k = 11; g = .11, p = .38).
- Depressed individuals did not show an orienting bias toward threat (k = 4; g = −.01, p = .95), but showed reduced orienting toward pleasant stimuli (k = 6; g = −.24, p < .05, CI = −.47, −.004; FSN = 6).
- In free viewing, anxious individuals did not differ overall in initial maintenance of gaze on threat (k = 16; g = −.17, p = .26), though spider phobia showed decreased maintenance (k = 3; g = −1.02, p < .001) and PTSD showed marginally increased maintenance (k = 2; g = .60, p = .05).
- In visual search, anxious individuals fixated threatening targets faster (k = 4; g = −.59, p < .04) and maintained attention longer on threatening distractors (k = 5; g = .54, p < .01); depressed individuals showed longer extended maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli (k = 6; g = .46, p < .01) and less on positive stimuli (k = 6; g = −.80, p < .001).
Methods
- PsycINFO and PubMed were searched for eye-tracking studies of anxiety or depression in adults; inclusion required eye tracking (video-based infrared or electro-oculography), adult anxiety/depression, and simultaneous emotional and neutral stimuli in regular arrays competing for attention.
- The meta-analysis included 33 experiments with 1579 participants (anxious N = 563; non-anxious N = 532; depressed N = 162; non-depressed N = 257; unselected N = 65); 28 experiments used free viewing (N = 1337) and 5 used visual search in anxiety (N = 242).
- Effect sizes used Hedges’s g with random-effects models; heterogeneity was tested with Q and I², moderators with categorical and meta-regression analyses, and publication bias with fail-safe N.
Limitations
- The paper states that eye tracking measures overt attention only and may miss covert attentional allocation, especially for the maintenance hypothesis; free viewing studies may fail to observe maintenance biases if they occur covertly before initial fixation.
- The paper states that several analyses relied on small numbers of studies, including depression orienting (k = 4), depression positive orienting (k = 6), depression extended maintenance (k = 6), and visual search (k = 5, mostly spider phobia k = 4), limiting generalizability.
- The paper states that few studies examined threat beyond 3 seconds, so the full time course of attentional bias could not be realized; evident from the text, anxiety analyses showed significant heterogeneity and moderator analyses provided limited explanation.
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80 Not checked yet · 57 Own interpretation · 39 Own result · 23 No basis given · 14 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“were characterized by reduced orienting to positive stimuli”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
plaincorrelationaln = 1,579- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing and visual search”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
plaincorrelationaln = 1,579- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing and visual search”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
plaincorrelationaln = 1,579- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“depressed individuals were not characterized by vigilance for threat during free viewing”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“showed difficulty disengaging from threat in visual search tasks, but not during free viewing.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“showed difficulty disengaging from threat in visual search tasks, but not during free viewing.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reduced maintenance of gaze on positive stimuli”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The only significant moderator was the operational definition of vigilance [event versus epoch-related variable: Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05].”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the moderator analysis provided limited insight into this variance.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 56
- Probably not a substantial claim. 33
In the paper
“This bias appears to be specific to threatening stimuli, as anxious individuals did not show an orienting bias towards positive stimuli compared to non-anxious individuals, as would be predicted under the emotionality hypothesis (Calvo & Avero, 2005).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Calvo & Avero, 2005
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present review integrates a total of 33 eye tracking experiments with 1579 participants”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results
plainn = 1,579- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Eye tracking has the potential to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies of individuals meeting diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder found a more robust maintenance bias for dysphoric stimuli in depression (k = 2; g = 1.07, p < .01, CI = .36, 1.80;), compared to studies of individuals meeting a cut-off score for a symptom measure (k = 4; g = .26, p < .06, CI = −.01, .53), Q (1) = 4.40, p < .05.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Extended maintenance of gaze in depression
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although anxious individuals did not immediately orient to threatening visual search targets, they did fixate on these targets sooner than non-anxious individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas a robust orienting bias towards threat was found in anxiety, no orienting bias towards threat was observed in depression.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although a maintenance bias on threat in anxiety was not consistently observed during free viewing, it was observed for threatening distractors during visual search for non-threatening targets.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This finding is also consistent with Peckham et al.’s (2010) recent review, which found reduced initial attention allocation to positive stimuli in depressed individuals (c.f., Derakshan et al., 2009b).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham et al.’s (2010) source
- Not checked yetcites Derakshan et al., 2009b
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The sustained maintenance of gaze on real spiders found byLange et al. (2004) contrasts with the sustained avoidance of gaze on mere images of spiders found over 3 s (Hermans et al., 1999; Rinck & Becker, 2006), 9 s (Pflugshaupt et al., 2007) and 60 s (Rinck & Becker, 2006) trials.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This finding is consistent with a recent meta-analysis of RT studies of attentional bias in depression, which found no bias for threatening stimuli in depressed compared to non-depressed individuals (Peckham et al., 2010; see also Mogg & Bradley, 2005).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, whereas anxious individuals showed a slight increase in orienting to positive stimuli compared to non-anxious individuals, depressed individuals showed a tendency to orient gaze less to positive stimuli, compared to non-depressed individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals also showed a tendency to maintain gaze on dysphoric stimuli longer than non-depressed individuals during extended viewing (10 to 30 s), and this bias was most pronounced in depressed individuals meeting full diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the present review, the majority of studies examining attentional avoidance measured fixation duration on stimuli as a function of time.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“However, effect sizes were mostly consistent across studies of depression, and the combined effects were largely consistent with RT research on attentional biases in depression (Peckham et al., 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham et al., 2010 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a smaller literature suggesting an attentional bias for dysphoric stimuli and possible neglect of positive stimuli in depression (Peckham, McHugh, & Otto, 2010)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham, McHugh, & Otto, 2010 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the continuous nature of eye tracking provides an important advance in characterizing the time course and components of attentional bias.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas anxiety has been examined with both free viewing and visual search eye tracking paradigms, depression has only been investigated in free viewing eye tracking tasks.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > Using EMs as indicators of attentional bias
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In research on anxiety disorders, it is still unclear to what extent increased processing of threat reflects facilitated orienting toward threat versus difficulty disengaging attention from threat (Weierich, Treat, & Hollingworth, 2008).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Weierich, Treat, & Hollingworth, 2008
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“in naturalistic viewing, EMs are the primary means of attentional selection, with covert attention largely relegated to guiding EMs (Hayhoe & Ballard, 2005; Findlay & Gilchrist, 2003).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hayhoe & Ballard, 2005
- Not checked yetcites Findlay & Gilchrist, 2003
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the components involved in the biases related to dysphoric and positive stimuli remain unclear.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, anxious participants showed a marginal tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat compared to non-anxious individuals and this effect was particularly pronounced in spider phobia.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Computing the between groups effect without this within-subjects baseline yielded equivalent results.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present review provides the first meta-analysis of EM biases for emotional stimuli in affective disorders.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, it appears that an overt orienting bias towards threat characterizes anxiety, but not depression.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“An orienting bias for threat in free viewing did not characterize depressed individuals compared to non-depressed individuals, suggesting that vigilance for threat is specific to anxiety (Mogg & Bradley, 2005).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mogg & Bradley, 2005 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the event-related variable was selected, because it provides a more direct measure of initial orienting”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In studies of anxiety, the vigilance hypothesis was supported in both free viewing and visual search tasks: anxious individuals were characterized by an orienting bias towards threat during free viewing and facilitated detection of threat during visual search, compared to non-anxious individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The within-groups effects alone were not interpretable, as the search conditions without threatening stimuli were not always matched for difficulty with the conditions containing distractors (e.g., Miltner et al., 2004).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Miltner et al., 2004 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas emotional stimuli can undermine endogenous control in the initial maintenance of gaze, such stimulus-driven effects appear to wane quickly in the later maintenance of gaze (Nummenmaa, et al., 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > EM indicators of attentional bias in depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nummenmaa, et al., 2006 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, this effect was based mostly on studies of spider phobic individuals, who showed the strongest tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat in free viewing tasks.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such facilitated overt threat detection in anxiety may still involve an exogenous orienting bias, albeit one that is capacity-limited, and only effective once gaze is directed to a nearby distracter, bringing the threatening stimulus within a range of eccentricity from which it can attract attention under perceptual load.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas an exogenous orienting bias for threatening targets would result in fewer fixations on neutral distractors, facilitated detection of threatening targets could also be achieved through shorter fixations on neutral distractors (c.f. Rinck & Becker, 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rinck & Becker, 2006
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One component of hypervigilance for threat in anxiety may be the ability to rapidly disengage from neutral stimuli during the search for threat, a process that would draw on the endogenous, top-down control of attention.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Threats related to traumatic events (combat: Kimble et al., 2012; physical assault: Felmingham et al., 2011) present greater urgency and danger compared to spiders, and thus may be more difficult to ignore.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kimble et al., 2012
- Not checked yetcites Felmingham et al., 2011 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As Nummenmaa and colleagues (2006) note, reflexive saccades typical of purely exogenous capture (e.g., resulting from the sudden onset of a stimulus with a sharply contrasting basic feature) have a latency of 150 to 175 ms (Rayner, 1998).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nummenmaa and colleagues (2006)
- Not checked yetcites Rayner, 1998 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Gaze avoidance may be particularly strong in spider phobia because spider fearful individuals find spiders disgusting (e.g., Mulkens, de Jong, & Merckelbach, 1996), and may be revolted by the perceptual features of spiders (Royzman & Sabini, 2001).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mulkens, de Jong, & Merckelbach, 1996
- Not checked yetcites Royzman & Sabini, 2001
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In anxious individuals, this so-called ‘panic search’ may be triggered when individuals anticipate the presence of threat.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the present findings leave open the possibility that facilitated threat detection in anxiety also involves more rapid disengagement from neutral stimuli, a process that may rely on endogenous attentional control.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In a free viewing task, there is no task incentive to disengage attention from threat, yet there may be an affective incentive, as threat stimuli arouse anxiety or fear.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, an alternative explanation is that anxious individuals decide whether or not to sustain attention on threat according to a cost-benefit analysis.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
In the paper
“Inhibitory control deficits related to anxiety (Eysenck et al., 2007) may be more threat-specific in the engagement of attention compared to the shifting of attention because more information is available once a stimulus is engaged, reducing ‘false alarms.’”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eysenck et al., 2007 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This finding is consistent with RT research suggesting that when spider phobics anticipate the possibility of a spider distractor, the stimulus-driven system becomes dominant, leading to increased exogenous shifting to all distractors (Devue, Belopolsky, & Theeuwes, 2011).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Devue, Belopolsky, & Theeuwes, 2011
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, these individuals may feel compelled to continue monitoring more urgent danger cues (e.g., a live tarantula in a nearby box) at the cost of increased anxiety.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anxiety appears to increase the exogenous system’s sensitivity to threatening stimuli, whereas depression appears to decrease the system’s sensitivity to positive stimuli.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas spider fearful individuals may learn to cope with the presence of spiders by looking elsewhere, individuals with PTSD may perceive the need to maintain attention on trauma cues to avoid immediate harm.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although this finding could reflect more frequent shifting of gaze to threatening distractors (Miltner et al., 2008), rather than difficulty disengaging gaze from these distractors (Rinck & Becker, 2006), Gerdes, Alpers, and Pauli (2008) found that spider phobics were slower to detect a neutral target due to longer fixations rather than more frequent fixations on a spider distractor, suggesting”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gerdes, Alpers, and Pauli (2008)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In tripartite structural theories of internalizing disorders (e.g., Clark & Watson, 1991), the development of anxiety and depression can be understood in terms of a general factor (e.g., negative affect or neuroticism) that confers risk for both disorders, as well as disorder-specific factors, such as anxious arousal or low positive affect, which specifically confer risk for anxiety or depression,”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Clark & Watson, 1991 source
- Not checked yetcites Oehlberg, Revelle, & Mineka, 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Derakshan, Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, and Eysenck (2009) found that anxious individuals were able to execute saccades away from a threatening face as effectively as non-anxious individuals (i.e., with similar error rates); however, their correct saccades away from threatening faces had longer latencies, suggesting less efficiency disengaging covert attention from threatening faces in order to”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Derakshan, Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, and Eysenck (2009)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As Berggren and Derakshan (in press) explain, anxious individuals may be able to disengage attention as effectively as non-anxious individuals in certain contexts, but such disengagement is less efficient, as anxious individuals apply more effort in order to compensate for attentional control deficits.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Berggren and Derakshan (in press)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This additional effort may compensate for, and thus conceal, difficulty disengaging attention from threat in anxious individuals (Ansari & Derakshan, 2011b), reducing the sensitivity of free viewing tasks in detecting this bias.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ansari & Derakshan, 2011b
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Given that anxious individuals rate threatening stimuli as more unpleasant (e.g., Rinck & Becker, 2006), and have been observed to voluntarily terminate exposure to threatening images sooner compared to non-anxious individuals (Tolin, Lohr, Lee, & Sawchuk, 1999), it follows that anxious individuals have a greater affective incentive to disengage attention from threat, and may exert more effort”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rinck & Becker, 2006
- Not checked yetcites Tolin, Lohr, Lee, & Sawchuk, 1999
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, training attention over longer viewing windows (e.g., 3 s, 4.5 s; Wells & Beevers, 2010) appears to be more effective at modifying attentional bias in depression and reducing symptoms of depression, compared to training over a shorter viewing period (1.5 s; Baert, De Raedt, Schacht, & Koster, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wells & Beevers, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Baert, De Raedt, Schacht, & Koster, 2010 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A positivity bias appears to promote resilience (see Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2011), and initial evidence suggests that biases for positive stimuli can be induced through training and may have beneficial effects (Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2008).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2011 source
- Not checked yetcites Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2008
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These authors cite Fox et al.’s (2001) spatial cueing study, which found greater difficulty disengaging covert attention from incongruent threat cues presented at 100 ms or 250 ms SOAs in anxious individuals compared to controls.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fox et al.’s (2001) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Concerns have been raised about training attention away from threat in anxiety, as it could engender attentional avoidance of threat, which is believed to impair emotional processing and maintain anxiety (Koster, Baert, Bockstaele, & De Raedt, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Koster, Baert, Bockstaele, & De Raedt, 2010
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, Koster et al., (2010) found that training attention away from threat did not affect vigilance for threat in the modified dot probe (100 ms SOA); however, it did lead to later avoidance of threat (1500 ms SOA), a bias similar to that observed in spider phobia in the present meta-analysis.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Koster et al., (2010) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Deldin, Deveney, Kim, Casas, and Best (2001) found that individuals with major depressive disorder show a reduced slow wave (SW) component while maintaining positive adjectives in working memory, compared to controls.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Deldin, Deveney, Kim, Casas, and Best (2001)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals may voluntarily maintain gaze less on positive stimuli because they are less sensitive to the intrinsic pleasantness of the stimuli, reducing their incentive to maintain gaze.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Currently, it is unclear to what extent individuals make EMs during attention training.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recently there have been a number of studies demonstrating that training attention away from threat leads to functional improvement in anxiety (Hallion & Ruscio, 2011), and one study suggests an analogous effect related to dysphoric stimuli in depression (Wells & Beevers, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hallion & Ruscio, 2011 source
- Not checked yetcites Wells & Beevers, 2010
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the unweighted version of the dot probe (which is used as a control condition in training studies), EMs to either cue have been found to occur on 30% of trials overall; some individuals make EMs on more than half of trials, whereas others hardly make any EMs (Bradley, Mogg, & Millar, 2000).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bradley, Mogg, & Millar, 2000
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If an attentional bias towards dysphoric content in depression indeed requires the maintenance of negative content in working memory, it could explain why an initial orienting bias towards dysphoric content in depression was not found, as such a bias would operate before negative content begins to “stick” in working memory.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Behavioral research has also found that depression is characterized by decreased maintenance of positive stimuli in working memory relative to controls (Levens & Gotlib, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Levens & Gotlib, 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, if the maintenance bias in anxiety were limited to covert attention in the first 250 ms of stimulus processing, it would call into question the functional significance of the bias.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were also a small number of studies in the analysis of visual search tasks (k = 5), and these studies consisted almost entirely of studies of spider phobias (k = 4), raising concern about the generalizability of the present findings to other anxiety disorders.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Likewise, shorter fixations on threat, but not increased overall dwell time, has been found in contamination fear (Armstrong et al., 2012)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Armstrong et al., 2012 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the analysis of vigilance for threat in visual search tasks, the absence of an initial orienting bias for threat in anxiety suggests that such boundary conditions are present, and likely depend on one of these factors or their interaction (Acunzo & Henderson, 2011).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Acunzo & Henderson, 2011
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“attentional avoidance could be achieved by rapid disengagement from threat or by maintenance of gaze at a distant location”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another limitation of extant research is that few studies examined attention to threat beyond three seconds of exposure, and many studies employed even shorter trials.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Basic research suggests that the ability of threatening stimuli to capture gaze is affected by how many competing stimuli are present (perceptual load; Yates et al., 2010) and how far into the periphery stimuli are presented (eccentricity; Calvo, Nummenmaa, & Hyönä, 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yates et al., 2010 source
- Not checked yetcites Calvo, Nummenmaa, & Hyönä, 2006
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“facilitated detection of threat (i.e., vigilance) could derive from an orienting bias for threat or from rapid disengagement from neutral distractors”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pflugshaupte et al. (2005) embedded spiders in images of household scenes and found evidence of avoidance in the distance between a fixation’s coordinates and the nearest spider; further, they examined this relationship as a function of the ordinal number of the fixation”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pflugshaupte et al. (2005)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Sears et al. (2010) found that depressed individuals were slower initiating saccades away from dysphoric images, but not other image types (i.e., threatening, pleasant, neutral) compared to non-depressed individuals, a maintenance bias that was not revealed in a free viewing condition of their study.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sears et al. (2010) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, free viewing studies may fail to observe increased maintenance of attention on threat because the phenomenon occurs early in the covert deployment of attention, and thus eludes EM data.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present meta-analytic findings suggest that increased maintenance of gaze on threat in anxiety is best observed in a task in which all participants are explicitly required to disengage attention from threat.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, the boundary conditions of increased orienting to threat in anxiety have not been clearly outlined.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the analyses of initial orienting towards threat (k = 20) and maintenance of attention on threat (k = 16) in anxiety drew on a moderate number of studies, there were far fewer studies in the analysis of orienting towards threatening (k = 4) and positive stimuli in depression (k = 6), as well as in the analysis of extended maintenance of gaze in depression (k = 6).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, a more thorough investigation of the time course of attentional bias for threat—one of the chief promises of eye tracking methodology— could not be fully realized in the present analysis.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“increased attention on dysphoric stimuli (i.e., maintenance) could occur through voluntary or involuntary attentional engagement”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“an over-reliance on broad constructs, such as vigilance, maintenance, or avoidance in the interpretation of EM data has the potential to obscure underlying attentional mechanisms.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An over-reliance on broad attentional constructs can also stifle the discovery and exploration of novel gaze biases.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, attentional avoidance may also be seen in the distance between a fixation point and the nearest threatening stimulus.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
Eye tracking has the potential to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases.
“Given the potential of eye tracking to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases, a meta-analysis was conducted on the extant literature.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
“Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat.
“In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“and there is strong evidence supporting the use of eye-tracking technology in the study of attentional biases in affective disorders.62”
From Effectiveness of a projection-based augmented reality exposure system in treating cockroach phobia: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial (2023) · cites this paper as [62]
In the citing paper
“Empirical research indicates several manifestations of anxiety-related ABs, which are commonly uncorrelated [6,18,25,53].”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“ABs in attentionorienting are observed on spatial attention tasks (e.g., visual probe and eye-tracking tasks), and include initial orienting towards threat, maintaining attention on threat (also known as delayed disengagement), and orienting away from threat [6,25,29,53,54].”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“Attention maintenance on threat and poor threat-distractor inhibition may exacerbate anxiety-related thoughts and worries.”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“Threat-avoidant orienting may reduce immediate distress, but be maladaptive in the long term by impairing reason-based appraisal of feared stimuli, thereby impeding habituation and fear reduction.”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“automatic orienting to threat may increase detection of threat cues in the environment and awareness of potential danger, thereby enhancing anxious mood.”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“AB assessment methods include visual probe, spatial cueing, modified Stroop, flanker, and visual search tasks [6,7,12,19,35,53-55,86,98-100].”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“Much evidence of anxiety-related ABs in spatial orienting to threat has come from visual-probe task and eye-tracking studies (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012;Bar-Haim et al., 2007).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012
In the citing paper
“Evidence from eye-tracking and visual-probe studies suggests that while anxiety relates to increased initial orienting to threat, depression relates more to maintaining spatial attention on negative information (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012;Caseras, Garner, Bradley, & Mogg, 2007;Gotlib & Jormann, 2010;Mogg & Bradley, 2005;Mogg, Millar, & Bradley, 2000).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012
In the citing paper
“Meta-analytic findings from free-viewing studies indicate a bias in initial orienting towards threat, but not in maintenance of gaze on threat in anxiety (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012
In the citing paper
“Attention bias modification treatment (ABMT) for anxiety disorders grew out of data on threat-related attentional biases in anxiety.[1,2]”
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
“Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Maintenance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .338
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Q (5) = .66, p = .97”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Extended maintenance of gaze in depression
Reported p = .97 · recomputed p = .985
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Q (3) = .55, p = .95”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Reported p = .95 · recomputed p = .908
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Q (5) = 4.75, p = .55”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Reported p = .55 · recomputed p = .447
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .060
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Q (2) = .05, p = .79”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Maintenance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Reported p = .79 · recomputed p = .975
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upQ(4) = 4.54reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .338The two fall on opposite sides of .05
“Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05”
- Doesn’t add upQ(3) = 0.55reported p = .95 · recomputed p = .908
“Q (3) = .55, p = .95”
- Doesn’t add upQ(5) = 4.75reported p = .55 · recomputed p = .447
“Q (5) = 4.75, p = .55”
- Doesn’t add upQ(1) = 3.54reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .060
“Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05”
- Doesn’t add upQ(2) = 0.05reported p = .79 · recomputed p = .975
“Q (2) = .05, p = .79”
- Doesn’t add upQ(5) = 0.66reported p = .97 · recomputed p = .985
“Q (5) = .66, p = .97”
- ConsistentQ(19) = 47.09reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (19) = 47.09, p < .001”
- ConsistentQ(10) = 17.66reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .061
“Q (10) = 17.66, p = .06”
- ConsistentQ(1) = 6.72reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010
“Q (1) = 6.72, p = .01”
- ConsistentQ(5) = 8.78reported p = .12 · recomputed p = .118
“Q (5) = 8.78, p = .12”
- ConsistentQ(15) = 58.08reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (15) = 58.08, p < .001”
- ConsistentQ(4) = 24.13reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (4) = 24.13, p < .001”
- ConsistentQ(4) = 23.45reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (4) = 23.45, p < .001”
- ConsistentQ(1) = 0.1reported p = .76 · recomputed p = .752
“Q (1) = .10, p = .76”
- ConsistentQ(5) = 1.9reported p = .86 · recomputed p = .863
“Q (5) = 1.9, p = .86”
- ConsistentQ(5) = 9.77reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .082
“Q (5) = 9.77, p = .08”
- ConsistentQ(1) = 4.4reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .036
“Q (1) = 4.40, p < .05”
- ConsistentQ(3) = 10.89reported p < .02 · recomputed p = .012
“Q (3) = 10.89, p < .02”
- ConsistentQ(4) = 8.28reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .082
“Q (4) = 8.28, p = .08”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“social anxiety (k = 7; g = .05, p = .83, CI = −.42, .53; Q (4) = 23.45, p < .001, I2 = 74.41)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Maintenance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Reported 4 · recomputed 6
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
“Overall, anxious participants showed a marginal tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat compared to non-anxious individuals”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Maintenance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
“Anxious individuals did not differ overall in their initial maintenance of gaze on threat compared to non-anxious individuals (k = 16; g = −.17, p = .26, CI = −.47, .13; Figure 4).”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Studies of PTSD found marginally significant increased maintenance of gaze in anxious relative to non-anxious participants (k = 2; g = .60, p = .05, CI = .01, −1.21”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Maintenance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Reported 0.6 · recomputed -0.6
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Studies of contamination-based OCD (k = 2; g = −.24, p = .60, CI = −1.1, .66; Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05, I2 = 77.98)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Maintenance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Reported 4 · recomputed 1
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“the combined effect size was not significant (k = 6; g = .18, p = .27, CI = −.18, .27”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Reported 0.18 · recomputed 0.045
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
“For event-related analyses of vigilance (k = 17), variables indicating how frequently threatening stimuli captured initial fixations were collected. For epoch-related analyses of vigilance (k = 3), variables indicating total fixation time on threatening stimuli within the first 500 ms were collected.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
“The combined effect size was larger in studies reporting an event-related orienting variable (k = 16, g = .58, CI = .33, .83, p < .001) compared to studies only reporting an epoch-related orienting variable (k = 4, g = .12, CI = −.27, .51, p = .19).”
Citations
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BackgroundMethodConducting Meta-Analyses in R with the metafor Package
Viechtbauer, W. (2010) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v036.i03 · Cited by 20,464 · cited 1×
“Forest plots were generated using the metafor package for R statistical software (Viechtbauer, 2010).”
MethodControl of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain
Corbetta, M., & Shulman, G. L. (2002) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn755 · Cited by 12,881 · cited 3×
“The stimulus-driven system responds to unattended, motivationally-relevant events, enabling their detection through automatic shifts in attention (Corbetta & Shulman, 2002).”
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The attention system of the human brain
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“An abundance of behavioral and neuropsychological research suggests a fundamental distinction between a stimulus-driven system and a goal-directed system in the control of attention (Corbetta & Shulman, 2002; Posner & Peterson, 1990).”
BackgroundEye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research
Rayner, K. (1998) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372 · Cited by 7,979 · cited 1×
“, resulting from the sudden onset of a stimulus with a sharply contrasting basic feature) have a latency of 150 to 175 ms (Rayner, 1998).”
Background
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Poverty, depression, and anxiety: Causal evidence and mechanisms
Ridley, M., Rao, G., Schilbach, F., & Patel, V. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aay0214 · Cited by 1,220
Depression: A cognitive perspective
LeMoult, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2018.06.008 · Cited by 792
Best practices in eye tracking research
Carter, B. T., & Luke, S. G. (2020) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.05.010 · Cited by 659
The Status of Irritability in Psychiatry: A Conceptual and Quantitative Review
Vidal‐Ribas, P., Brotman, M. A., Valdivieso, I., Leibenluft, E., & Stringaris, A. K. (2016) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.04.014 · Cited by 493
“The bias toward threatening faces is not unique to SMD but is also present in people with depression and anxiety.(87,88) Finally, compared with HV, youth with SMD have deficits in reversal learning,(89) performing even worse than youth with BD when attentional demands increase.”
ResultMeasuring attentional bias to threat: reliability of dot probe and eye movement indices
Waechter, S., Nelson, A. L., Wright, C., Hyatt, A., & Oakman, J. (2014) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-013-9588-2 · Cited by 324
“In the existing literature, eye movement studies use different indices to measure attention to threat (see Armstrong and Olatunji 2012 and Cisler et al. 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe prefrontal cortex, pathological anxiety, and anxiety disorders
Kenwood, M. M., Kalin, N. H., & Barbas, H. (2021) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-021-01109-z · Cited by 379
“A meta-analysis of highly anxious individuals suggests that, in experimental paradigms involving viewing a virtual environment, they are hypervigilant and spend more time scanning for threat [67].”
BackgroundAnxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification
Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2016) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.08.001 · Cited by 313
“This model describes cognitive mechanisms underlying AB towards threat (identified in the metaanalysis), rather than those underlying anxiety-related threat avoidance, which is sometimes found in empirical studies (e.g., reviews by Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Cisler & Koster, 2010).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTowards a comprehensive assessment of interoception in a multi-dimensional framework
Suksasilp, C., & Garfinkel, S. N. (2022) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108262 · Cited by 288
“Individuals high in anxiety are biased to process threat, manifesting as an attentional bias to threat (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Bar-Haim, Lamy, Pergamin, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & Van Ijzendoorn, 2007; Van Bockstaele, Ver-schuere, Tibboel, De Houwer, Crombez, & Koster, 2014) and heightened memory…”
Duque, A., & Vázquez, C. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.09.005 · Cited by 288
Anxiety and depression: toward overlapping and distinctive features
Eysenck, M. W., & Fajkowska, M. (2017) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2017.1330255 · Cited by 281
“Meta-analyses have been reported by Armstrong and Olatunji (2012) and by Winer and Salem (2016). Armstrong and Olatunji reviewed studies using online eye tracking and found there was no attentional bias associated with anxiety but depression was associated with an opposite attentional bias (i.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAttentional bias for threat: Crisis or opportunity?
McNally, R. J. (2018) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2018.05.005 · Cited by 272
Depression: a decision-theoretic analysis
Huys, Q. J. M., Daw, N. D., & Dayan, P. (2015) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-071714-033928 · Cited by 221
“…refers to branches that start with a large loss eyes off it less rapidly (Caseras et al. 2007), spend more time examining it (Kellough et al. 2008, Armstrong & Olatunji 2012), show prolonged amygdala activation to it that persists into unrelated tasks (Siegle et al. 2002), and have a prolonged…”
BackgroundTemporal dynamics of attentional bias
Zvielli, A., Bernstein, A., & Koster, E. H. W. (2015) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702614551572 · Cited by 237
“Similarly, other recent work has also evaluated overt attention (i.e., eye movement data; Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Bradley, Mogg, & Millar, 2000).”
ResultExploring the function of selective attention and hypervigilance for threat in anxiety
Richards, H. J., Benson, V., Donnelly, N., & Hadwin, J. A. (2014) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.10.006 · Cited by 221
“Eye tracking studies have also reported findings consistent with vigilance for threat in anxiety (see Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
InfluentialAnxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment
Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2018) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.01.001 · Cited by 210
“, emotion-regulation/distressreduction goal), particularly if they have high fear/trauma symptoms [25,29,36,37,39,53].”
BackgroundInfluentialModeling Trait Anxiety: From Computational Processes to Personality
Raymond, J. G., Steele, J. D., & Seriès, P. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00001 · Cited by 209
Everaert, J., Duyck, W., & Koster, E. H. W. (2014) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0035250 · Cited by 212
Content specificity of attention bias to threat in anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis
Pergamin-Hight, L., Naim, R., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2015) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.10.005 · Cited by 194
“The results provide evidence for specific, content-based, selective attention processing in clinically anxious populations, going beyond the established threat versus neutral bias previously reported in anxiety and anxiety disorders (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Bar-Haim et al., 2007).”
Suslow, T., Hußlack, A., Kersting, A., & Bodenschatz, C. M. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.140 · Cited by 213
Badura-Brack, A. S., Naim, R., Ryan, T. J., Levy, O., Abend, R., Khanna, M. M., McDermott, T. J., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2015) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14121578 · Cited by 185
Linetzky, M., Pergamin-Hight, L., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2015) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22344 · Cited by 185
“Studies were selected using the following inclusion criteria: (1) the study was published in the English language prior to January 2014; (2) the participants were formally diagnosed with a primary anxiety dis-”
MethodInfluentialEngagement in digital interventions.
Nahum-Shani, I., Shaw, S. D., Carpenter, S. M., Murphy, S. A., & Yoon, C. (2022) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000983 · Cited by 177
A review of cognitive biases in youth depression: attention, interpretation and memory
Platt, B., Waters, A., Schulte-Koerne, G., Engelmann, L., & Salemink, E. (2017) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2015.1127215 · Cited by 160
“Indeed, a meta-analysis of eye-tracking studies during extended passive viewing suggests that depressed adults also spend less time attending to sad stimuli than non-depressed adults (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
BackgroundIndividual differences in visual salience vary along semantic dimensions
de Haas, B., Iakovidis, A. L., Schwarzkopf, D. S., & Gegenfurtner, K. R. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1820553116 · Cited by 145
Anxiety-Linked Attentional Bias: Is It Reliable?
MacLeod, C., Grafton, B., & Notebaert, L. (2019) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095505 · Cited by 173
Social anxiety is related to increased dwell time on socially threatening faces
Lazarov, A., Abend, R., & Bar‐Haim, Y. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.01.007 · Cited by 153
“confounding elements such as motor preparation and response execution (Armstrong and Olatunji (2012)). In addition, because RT measures capture only one instance in time, at the very end of a complex cognitive-behavioral process, they do not reflect the dynamic nature of online attention allocation (e.g., Bar-Haim (20…”
BackgroundInfluentialLoneliness and attention to social threat in young adults: Findings from an eye tracker study
Bangee, M., Nowland, R. A., Bridges, N., Rotenberg, K. J., & Qualter, P. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.039 · Cited by 169
“…patterns of attention processing to threat stimuli: (1) initial vigilance and maintenance relates to the orientation of attention to threat (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012), (2) disengagement difficulties refers to attention being captured by the threat stimuli (see Buckner, Maner, & Schmidt,…”
BackgroundAssociation between negative cognitive bias and depression: A symptom-level approach.
Beevers, C. G., Mullarkey, M. C., Dainer‐Best, J., Stewart, R. A., Labrada, J., Allen, J. J. B., McGeary, J. E., & Shumake, J. (2019) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000405 · Cited by 158
“Similarly, a meta-analysis of eye movements indicates that attention bias in depression is often characterized by reduced maintenance of gaze toward positive stimuli and increased maintenance of gaze toward negative stimuli (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
The role of attention control in complex real-world tasks
Draheim, C., Pak, R., Draheim, A. A., & Engle, R. W. (2022) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-02052-2 · Cited by 172
Bell, L., Vogt, J., Willemse, C., Routledge, T., Butler, L. T., & Sakaki, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01655 · Cited by 158
“Eye tracking thus represents a good measure of visual attention (Wedel and Pieters, 2007; Atalay et al., 2012).”
BackgroundThe Cambridge Handbook of Personality Psychology
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822 · Cited by 148
A review of selected candidate endophenotypes for depression
Goldstein, B. L., & Klein, D. N. (2014) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.06.003 · Cited by 128
“Importantly, meta-analysis of eye-tracking studies reported more sustained attention for dysphoric stimuli and less attention to positive stimuli in depressed samples (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
BackgroundLinetzky, M., Pergamin‐Hight, L., Pine, D. S., & Bar‐Haim, Y. (2017) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22690 · Cited by 130
Affect-Driven Attention Biases as Animal Welfare Indicators: Review and Methods
Crump, A., Arnott, G., & Bethell, E. (2018) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani8080136 · Cited by 129
“More precise methods involve manually coding eye gaze from video footage (e.g., [26,67,68]) and automated eye-tracking (see References [37,69,70]; human studies reviewed by References [71–74]).”
Gupta, R. S., Kujawa, A., & Vago, D. R. (2019) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2019.08.006 · Cited by 122
Gaze-contingent music reward therapy for social anxiety disorder: a randomized controlled trial
Lazarov, A., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2017) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16080894 · Cited by 125
“Eye-tracking measures may provide better therapeutic targets (12, 13, 17).”
BackgroundAttentional bias in depression: understanding mechanisms to improve training and treatment
Mennen, A. C., Norman, K. A., & Turk‐Browne, N. B. (2019) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.07.036 · Cited by 123
“the bias for the initial selection component of external attention reflects reduced selection of positive stimuli in depression rather than increased selection of negative stimuli [26].”
BackgroundThe Co-occurrence of Pediatric Chronic Pain and Depression
Soltani, S., Kopala‐Sibley, D. C., & Noel, M. E. (2019) · Clinical Journal of Pain · doi:10.1097/ajp.0000000000000723 · Cited by 124
Heathcote, L. C., & Eccleston, C. (2017) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000872 · Cited by 122
“It will be useful to use cognitive tasks that have beendeveloped tomeasure threat-related attending within psychopathology and chronic noncancer pain populations to now examine attention bias in cancer survival populations.(5,20) (3) It will also be important to measure the behavioural consequences of threat appraisal…”
MethodPrice, R. B., Rosen, D., Siegle, G. J., Ladouceur, C. D., Tang, K., Allen, K. B., Ryan, N. D., Dahl, R. E., Forbes, E. E., & Silk, J. S. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000127 · Cited by 114
“…in eye gaze during fearful-neutral face pair presentations, focusing specifically on overall bias in dwell time (the most consistent marker of depression and depression risk) and bias in initial fixation (an early attentional marker linked to anxiety) (for review, see Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
BackgroundLazarov, A., Suarez‐Jimenez, B., Tamman, A. J. F., Falzon, L., Zhu, X., Edmondson, D. E., & Neria, Y. (2018) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291718002313 · Cited by 122
“, 2013), providing no information about the course of attention deployment before or after the moment of measurement (Hermans et al., 1999; Bar-Haim et al., 2007; Bar-Haim, 2010; In-Albon and Schneider, 2010; Yiend, 2010; Felmingham et al., 2011; Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012; Shechner et al., 2013; Thomas et al., 2013…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLazarov, A., Ben‐Zion, Z., Shamai‐Leshem, D., Pine, D. S., & Bar‐Haim, Y. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.05.047 · Cited by 115
“, 2010), and free-viewing eye-tracking research (Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012; Caseras et al., 2007; Duque and Vazquez, 2015; Kellough et al., 2008; Sears et al., 2010), negative bias in depression is primarily evident when stimuli are presented for long durations.”
Everaert, J., Grahek, I., & Koster, E. H. W. (2016) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2016.1144562 · Cited by 106
“…first two authors (J.E. and I.G.) made equal contributions to this study. experience difficulties in disengaging attention from processing negative material (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012) and infer more negative than positive interpretations from ambiguous information (for a review, see Wisco, 2009).”
BackgroundAssociation between attention bias to threat and anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents
Abend, R., de Voogd, E. L., Salemink, E., Wiers, R. W. H. J., Pérez‐Edgar, K. E., Fitzgerald, A., White, L. K., Salum, G. A., He, J., Silverman, W. K., et al. (2017) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22706 · Cited by 109
“In adults, considerable research links threat-related attention biases to anxiety, with some evidence suggesting their role in causing and maintaining anxiety (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Bar-Haim, Lamy, Pergamin, BakermansKranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2007; MacLeod & Mathews, 2012).”
BackgroundIdentifying Transdiagnostic Mechanisms in Mental Health Using Computational Factor Modeling
Wise, T., Robinson, O. J., & Gillan, C. M. (2023) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.09.034 · Cited by 108
“Attenuated reward processing is thought to be partly responsible for a host of cognitive phenomena observed in depression, for example, reduced emotional recognition of happy faces (79), attentional biases toward negative information (80 – 82), and biases for negative memories (83).”
The influence of subcortical shortcuts on disordered sensory and cognitive processing.
McFadyen, J., Dolan, R. J., & Garrido, M. I. (2020) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-020-0287-1 · Cited by 91
Skinner, I., Hübscher, M., Moseley, G. L., Lee, H., Wand, B. M., Traeger, A. C., Gustin, S. M., & McAuley, J. H. (2017) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0946-y · Cited by 108
Deconstructing trait anxiety: a network perspective
Heeren, A., Bernstein, E. E., & McNally, R. J. (2018) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2018.1439263 · Cited by 107
“…from concernrelated material and the presence of intrusive thoughts are two core transdiagnostic processes across anxiety and mood disorders (e.g., Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Clark & de Silva, 1985; Clark & Rhyno, 2005; De Raedt & Koster, 2010) that have been repeatedly associated with trait…”
BackgroundDisner, S. G., Shumake, J. D., & Beevers, C. G. (2017) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2016.1146123 · Cited by 98
“…individuals demonstrate greater attention for negative stimuli and decreased attention to positive stimuli relative to non-depressed individuals (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Beck, 1967; Gotlib, Krasnoperova, Yue, & Joormann, 2004; Koster, De Raedt, Goeleven, Franck, & Crombez, 2005; Peckham,…”
BackgroundAngelidis, A., Hagenaars, M. A., Son, D. V., van der Does, W. A. J., & Putman, P. (2018) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.03.002 · Cited by 104
Kret, M. E., & Ploeger, A. (2015) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.02.011 · Cited by 115
Clauss, K. E., Gorday, J. Y., & Bardeen, J. R. (2022) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102142 · Cited by 121
Is subthreshold depression in adolescence clinically relevant?
Noyes, B. K., Munoz, D. P., Khalid‐Khan, S., Brietzke, E. M., & Booij, L. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.04.067 · Cited by 110
Eye Movement in Unipolar and Bipolar Depression: A Systematic Review of the Literature
Carvalho, N., Laurent, É., Noiret, N., Chopard, G., Haffen, É., Bennabi, D., & Vandel, P. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01809 · Cited by 103
“The majority of the studies included in our review found an attraction for negative emotion and a reduced orientation to positive emotion in depression (Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialGaze perception in social anxiety and social anxiety disorder
Schulze, L., Renneberg, B., & Lobmaier, J. S. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00872 · Cited by 99
An Improved Classification Model for Depression Detection Using EEG and Eye Tracking Data
Zhu, J., Wang, Z., Gong, T., Zeng, S., Li, X., Hu, B., Li, J., Sun, S., & Zhang, L. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on NanoBioscience · doi:10.1109/tnb.2020.2990690 · Cited by 98
“According to the relative studies, depression is characterized by reduced orientation towards positive stimuli along with reduced maintenance of gaze on positive stimuli and increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli in previous eye tracking studies [14], [15].”
BackgroundMapping the interplay among cognitive biases, emotion regulation, and depressive symptoms
Everaert, J., Grahek, I., Duyck, W., Buelens, J., Van den Bergh, N., & Koster, E. H. W. (2017) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2016.1144561 · Cited by 96
“…biases observed in nonclinical samples of individuals with varying depression levels often differ from clinical samples in degree rather than type (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012), it can be expected that the observed relations among cognitive biases, ER difficulties, and depressive symptoms are even…”
BackgroundResultEmotional information processing in depression and burnout: an eye-tracking study
Bianchi, R., & Laurent, É. (2015) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-014-0549-x · Cited by 79
Attention Bias in Rumination and Depression: Cognitive Mechanisms and Brain Networks
Kaiser, R. H., Snyder, H. R., Goer, F., Clegg, R. A., Ironside, M. L., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2018) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702618797935 · Cited by 104
“However, metaanalyses have yielded equivocal support for attention biases at later (elaborated) as well as earlier (orienting) stages of processing in depression, or failed to find an association between attention bias and stimulus duration (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Peckham et al., 2010).”
Translating dynamic defense patterns from rodents to people
Blanchard, D. C. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.11.001 · Cited by 94
Afek, A., Ben-Avraham, R., Davidov, A., Cohen, N., Yehuda, A. B., Gilboa, Y., & Nahum, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.608588 · Cited by 99
Heeren, A., Baeken, C., Vanderhasselt, M., Philippot, P., & Raedt, R. D. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124182 · Cited by 90
“Nevertheless, the impact of this weakness is limited in the present study as recent papers suggest that eye-tracking measurements are more reliable, exhibit higher temporal resolution, and are less susceptible to confounding processes than RT indices in tasks assessing AB [17].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe N2pc component reliably captures attentional bias in social anxiety
Reutter, M., Hewig, J. S., Wieser, M. J., & Osinsky, R. (2017) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12809 · Cited by 90
Capturing dynamics of biased attention: are new attention variability measures the way forward
Kruijt, A.-W., Field, A. P., & Fox, E. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0166600 · Cited by 91
Hur, J., Stockbridge, M. D., Fox, A. S., & Shackman, A. J. (2019) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2019.03.012 · Cited by 95
Villalobos, D., Pacios, J., & Vázquez, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.628416 · Cited by 106
“There is robust meta-analytic evidence on the negative cognitive biases in experimental tasks of attention (Peckham et al., 2010; Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012; Epp et al., 2012 ), memory (Matt et al., 1992), and interpretation (Everaert et al., 2017a) as well as in self-report questionnaires that…”
BackgroundAn integrative review of attention biases and their contribution to treatment for anxiety disorders
Barry, T. J., Vervliet, B., & Hermans, D. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00968 · Cited by 88
“There is overwhelming evidence concerning the presence of attentional biases in anxiety disorders (Bar-Haim et al., 2007; Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialA privacy-preserving approach to streaming eye-tracking data
David-John, B., Hosfelt, D., Butler, K. R. B., & Jain, E. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2021.3067787 · Cited by 91
“The eyes can also reveal whether an individual suffers from an affective disorder—anxious individuals’ gaze is characterized by vigilance for threat during free viewing, while depressed individuals’ gaze is characterized by reduced maintenance of gaze on positive stimuli [5].”
BackgroundKim, N., Kim, J., & Ahn, C. R. (2021) · Advanced Engineering Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.aei.2021.101359 · Cited by 90
Lisk, S. C., Vaswani, A., Linetzky, M., Bar‐Haim, Y., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2019) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.06.006 · Cited by 105
Gibb, B. E., McGeary, J. E., & Beevers, C. G. (2015) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32383 · Cited by 97
“This said, new approaches that rely on trial level RT data have been proposed and appear promising (e.g., split half reliability ranged from .58 – .67; Zvielli, Bernstein, & Koster, 2014), although additional validation is needed.”
Gaze-fixation and pupil dilation in the processing of emotional faces: The role of rumination
Duque, A., Sánchez-López, Á., & Vázquez, C. (2014) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.881327 · Cited by 94
“Most of the research on depression and visual attention has found that free viewing tasks may be more sensitive than visual search tasks to detect attentional biases (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
BackgroundGaze-Based Assessments of Vigilance and Avoidance in Social Anxiety: a Review
Chen, N. T. M., & Clarke, P. (2017) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-017-0808-4 · Cited by 101
Temperament and brain networks of attention
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0254 · Cited by 95
Kleberg, J. L., Högström, J., Nord, M., Bölte, S., Serlachius, E., & Falck‐Ytter, T. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2978-z · Cited by 84
“In contrast to ASD, social anxiety and SAD have been associated with a bias to look away from potentially threatening social stimuli, including eyes with direct gaze, once they are fixated, a process likely reflecting anxiety-driven avoidance (Armstrong and Olatunji 2012; Garner et al.”
BackgroundZhang, X., Pan, J., Shen, J. G., Din, Z. U., Li, J., Lu, D., Wu, M., & Hu, B. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2020.2981440 · Cited by 84
Llanes-Jurado, J., Marín‐Morales, J., Guixeres, J., & Alcañíz, M. (2020) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s20174956 · Cited by 97
“It is an important source of data for obtaining a complete dataset of features from the analysis of different types of eye movements [16].”
BackgroundFu, X., & Pérez‐Edgar, K. E. (2018) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2018.11.002 · Cited by 92
Self-reported cognitive biases in depression: A meta-analysis
Nieto, I., Robles, E., & Vázquez, C. (2020) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101934 · Cited by 93
A mechanistic account of serotonin’s impact on mood
Michely, J., Eldar, E., Martin, I. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-16090-2 · Cited by 72
The Potential of Game-Based Digital Biomarkers for Modeling Mental Health
Mandryk, R. L., & Birk, M. V. (2019) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/13485 · Cited by 93
“For example, eye gaze patterns have been used to characterize individuals with various depression and anxiety disorders [85].”
Somppi, S., Törnqvist, H., Kujala, M. V., Hänninen, L. T., Krause, C. M., & Vainio, O. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143047 · Cited by 105
“amygdala overrides prefrontal modulation and leads to failure to disengage attention away from the threatening stimuli (for reviews, see [21,22,59]).”
BackgroundResultShackman, A. J., Stockbridge, M. D., Tillman, R. M., Kaplan, C. M., Tromp, D., Fox, A. S., & Gamer, M. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.054015 · Cited by 84
“…cues in free-viewing tasks; quicker to fixate threat-related targets in visual search tasks; and slower to disengage from threat-related distractors in spatial cueing, visual search, and dot-probe3 tasks (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012; Cisler & Koster, 2010; Rudaizky, Basanovic, & MacLeod, 2014).”
BackgroundSears, C. R., Quigley, L., Fernandez, A., Newman, K. R., & Dobson, K. S. (2018) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-018-1147-z · Cited by 88
Poverty, Depression, and Anxiety: Causal Evidence and Mechanisms
Ridley, M., Rao, G., Schilbach, F., & Patel, V. (2020) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w27157 · Cited by 89
Günther, V., Kropidlowski, A., Schmidt, F. M., Koelkebeck, K., Kersting, A., & Suslow, T. (2021) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110353 · Cited by 92
García‐Blanco, A., Salmerón, L., Perea, M., & Livianos, L. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.12.039 · Cited by 83
“However, no study found differences in the eye-gaze patterns related to threatening stimuli between depressed and non-depressed individuals (Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012).”
InfluentialNeural changes with attention bias modification for anxiety: a randomized trial.
Britton, J. C., Suway, J. G., Clementi, M., Fox, N., Pine, D., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2015) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsu141 · Cited by 79
“Threatening cues capture the attention of individuals with anxiety to a greater extent than for non-anxious individuals (Bar-Haim et al., 2007; Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012).”
BackgroundA two-factor model of relapse/recurrence vulnerability in unipolar depression
Farb, N. A. S., Irving, J. A., Anderson, A. K., & Segal, Z. V. (2015) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000031 · Cited by 75
“Conversely, one proposed mechanism of ADMs is that they promote a positive bias in attention to counter dysphoric attention (Harmer & Cowen, 2013).”
InfluentialEveraert, J., Vrijsen, J. N., Martin‐Willett, R., van de Kraats, L., & Joormann, J. (2022) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000367 · Cited by 91
Understanding anxiety symptoms as aberrant defensive responding along the threat imminence continuum
Abend, R. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105305 · Cited by 82
Attentional bias towards negative stimuli in healthy individuals and the effects of trait anxiety
Veerapa, E., Grandgenevre, P., El Fayoumi, M., Vinnac, B., Haelewyn, O., Szaffarczyk, S., Vaiva, G., & D’Hondt, F. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-68490-5 · Cited by 73
Trait emotional intelligence and attentional bias for positive emotion: An eye tracking study
Lea, R. G., Qualter, P., Davis, S. K., Pérez-González, J. C., & Bangee, M. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.02.017 · Cited by 82
The influence of anxiety on ocular motor control and gaze
Staab, J. P. (2013) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/wco.0000000000000055 · Cited by 73
Sánchez-López, Á., & Vázquez, C. (2014) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2014.910827 · Cited by 78
“…on the probability of having a first fixation on a given face (which is related to early stages of processing) in addition to information on the total number of fixations and the total time spent on a given face (which is related to later stages of processing) (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDon’t look now! Oculomotor avoidance as a conditioned disgust response.
Armstrong, T., McClenahan, L. J., Kittle, J., & Olatunji, B. O. (2013) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0034558 · Cited by 76
“Indeed, ‘attentional avoidance’ of threat appears to be most prominent in specific phobias, such as BII phobia (Mogg, Bradley, Miles, & Dixon, 2004) and spider phobia (Rinck & Becker, 2006), which may be due to the disgusting quality of stimuli in these disorders (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationDepression and Subthreshold Depression in Stroke-Related Aphasia
Ashaie, S. A., Hurwitz, R., & Cherney, L. R. (2019) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2019.01.024 · Cited by 75
Attentional threat biases and their role in anxiety: A neurophysiological perspective
Wieser, M. J., & Keil, A. (2020) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.05.004 · Cited by 72
Method of Depression Classification Based on Behavioral and Physiological Signals of Eye Movement
Li, M., Cao, L., Zhai, Q., Li, P., Liu, S., Li, R., Feng, L., Wang, G., Hu, B., & Lu, S. (2020) · Complexity · doi:10.1155/2020/4174857 · Cited by 71
“Many previous eye movement studies have shown that, on the one hand, depressed patients tend to have emotional attention bias [19], i.”
BackgroundAttentional bias in eating disorders: A meta‐review
Stott, N., Fox, J. R. E., & Williams, M. O. (2021) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23560 · Cited by 78
“Eye-tracking is a more recent paradigm for assessing attentional bias which, unlike the Stroop and dot probe, is a direct measure of overt attentional bias that records participants' saccades toward visual stimuli (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Armstrong, Thomas
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-12
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 704-723
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3556338
- OpenAlex
- W2104609554
- Cited by
- 1,049
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 71 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 105 · 2020: 148 · 2019: 92 · 2018: 84 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 5.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (F31MH087018)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Visual Attention and Saliency Detection
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- eye tracking, attentional bias, mood disorders, anxiety, depression, threat vigilance, visual search, free viewing, emotional stimuli
- MeSH terms
- Anxiety Disorders, Arousal, Attention, Depressive Disorder, Emotions, Eye Movements, Facial Expression, Fixation, Ocular, Humans, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Reaction Time
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