CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 1,049Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesVisual Attention and Saliency DetectionNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: a meta-analytic review and synthesis

Open access
Armstrong, Thomas, Olatunji, Bunmi O.·2012·Clinical Psychology Review
DOI 10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.004PMC PMC3556338
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

A large body of research has demonstrated that affective disorders are characterized by attentional biases for emotional stimuli. However, this research relies heavily on manual reaction time (RT) measures that cannot fully delineate the time course and components of attentional bias. Eye tracking technology, which allows relatively direct and continuous measurement of overt visual attention, may provide an important supplement to RT measures. This article reviews eye tracking research on anxiety and depression, evaluating the experimental paradigms and eye movement indicators used to study attentional biases. Also included is a meta-analysis of extant eye tracking research (33 experiments; N=1579) on both anxiety and depression. Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing and visual search, and showed difficulty disengaging from threat in visual search tasks, but not during free viewing. In contrast, depressed individuals were not characterized by vigilance for threat during free viewing, but were characterized by reduced orienting to positive stimuli, as well as reduced maintenance of gaze on positive stimuli and increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli. Implications of these findings for theoretical accounts of attentional bias in anxiety and depression are discussed, and avenues for future research using eye-tracking technology are outlined.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This meta-analytic review synthesizes 33 eye-tracking experiments (N = 1579) on attentional biases in anxiety and depression. Anxiety was linked to increased vigilance for threat, while depression was linked to reduced orienting to and maintenance of positive stimuli and increased maintenance of dysphoric stimuli.

Key findings

  • Anxious individuals showed an orienting bias toward threat in free viewing compared with non-anxious individuals (k = 20; g = .47, p < .001, CI = .25, .69; FSN = 203), but no significant orienting bias toward pleasant stimuli (k = 11; g = .11, p = .38).
  • Depressed individuals did not show an orienting bias toward threat (k = 4; g = −.01, p = .95), but showed reduced orienting toward pleasant stimuli (k = 6; g = −.24, p < .05, CI = −.47, −.004; FSN = 6).
  • In free viewing, anxious individuals did not differ overall in initial maintenance of gaze on threat (k = 16; g = −.17, p = .26), though spider phobia showed decreased maintenance (k = 3; g = −1.02, p < .001) and PTSD showed marginally increased maintenance (k = 2; g = .60, p = .05).
  • In visual search, anxious individuals fixated threatening targets faster (k = 4; g = −.59, p < .04) and maintained attention longer on threatening distractors (k = 5; g = .54, p < .01); depressed individuals showed longer extended maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli (k = 6; g = .46, p < .01) and less on positive stimuli (k = 6; g = −.80, p < .001).

Methods

  • PsycINFO and PubMed were searched for eye-tracking studies of anxiety or depression in adults; inclusion required eye tracking (video-based infrared or electro-oculography), adult anxiety/depression, and simultaneous emotional and neutral stimuli in regular arrays competing for attention.
  • The meta-analysis included 33 experiments with 1579 participants (anxious N = 563; non-anxious N = 532; depressed N = 162; non-depressed N = 257; unselected N = 65); 28 experiments used free viewing (N = 1337) and 5 used visual search in anxiety (N = 242).
  • Effect sizes used Hedges’s g with random-effects models; heterogeneity was tested with Q and I², moderators with categorical and meta-regression analyses, and publication bias with fail-safe N.

Limitations

  • The paper states that eye tracking measures overt attention only and may miss covert attentional allocation, especially for the maintenance hypothesis; free viewing studies may fail to observe maintenance biases if they occur covertly before initial fixation.
  • The paper states that several analyses relied on small numbers of studies, including depression orienting (k = 4), depression positive orienting (k = 6), depression extended maintenance (k = 6), and visual search (k = 5, mostly spider phobia k = 4), limiting generalizability.
  • The paper states that few studies examined threat beyond 3 seconds, so the full time course of attentional bias could not be realized; evident from the text, anxiety analyses showed significant heterogeneity and moderator analyses provided limited explanation.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.004

Cites

147 of 147 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

19 tests recomputed · 1 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

0 of 103 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Depressed individuals were characterized by reduced orienting to positive stimuli.

    “were characterized by reduced orienting to positive stimuli”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing.

    “Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing and visual search”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during visual search.

    “Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing and visual search”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Depressed individuals were characterized by increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli.

    “increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Depressed individuals were not characterized by vigilance for threat during free viewing.

    “depressed individuals were not characterized by vigilance for threat during free viewing”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 56
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 33

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The orienting bias in anxiety appears specific to threatening stimuli; anxious individuals did not show an orienting bias towards positive stimuli compared to non-anxious individuals.

    “This bias appears to be specific to threatening stimuli, as anxious individuals did not show an orienting bias towards positive stimuli compared to non-anxious individuals, as would be predicted under the emotionality hypothesis (Calvo & Avero, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Calvo & Avero, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The present review integrates a total of 33 eye tracking experiments with 1579 participants.

    “The present review integrates a total of 33 eye tracking experiments with 1579 participants”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Eye tracking has the potential to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Studies of individuals meeting diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder found a more robust maintenance bias for dysphoric stimuli in depression (k = 2; g = 1.07, p < .01, CI = .36, 1.80) compared to studies of individuals meeting a cut-off score for a symptom measure (k = 4; g = .26, p < .06, CI = −.01, .53), Q (1) = 4.40, p < .05.

    “Studies of individuals meeting diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder found a more robust maintenance bias for dysphoric stimuli in depression (k = 2; g = 1.07, p < .01, CI = .36, 1.80;), compared to studies of individuals meeting a cut-off score for a symptom measure (k = 4; g = .26, p < .06, CI = −.01, .53), Q (1) = 4.40, p < .05.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Anxious individuals did not immediately orient to threatening visual search targets, but they did fixate on these targets sooner than non-anxious individuals.

    “Although anxious individuals did not immediately orient to threatening visual search targets, they did fixate on these targets sooner than non-anxious individuals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A robust orienting bias towards threat was found in anxiety, but no orienting bias towards threat was observed in depression.

    “Whereas a robust orienting bias towards threat was found in anxiety, no orienting bias towards threat was observed in depression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    A maintenance bias on threat in anxiety was observed for threatening distractors during visual search for non-threatening targets, though not consistently during free viewing.

    “Although a maintenance bias on threat in anxiety was not consistently observed during free viewing, it was observed for threatening distractors during visual search for non-threatening targets.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The finding of reduced orienting to positive stimuli in depression is consistent with Peckham et al.'s (2010) review, which found reduced initial attention allocation to positive stimuli in depressed individuals.

    “This finding is also consistent with Peckham et al.’s (2010) recent review, which found reduced initial attention allocation to positive stimuli in depressed individuals (c.f., Derakshan et al., 2009b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Peckham et al.’s (2010) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Derakshan et al., 2009b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Sustained maintenance of gaze on real spiders contrasts with sustained avoidance of gaze on mere images of spiders found over 3 s, 9 s, and 60 s trials.

    “The sustained maintenance of gaze on real spiders found byLange et al. (2004) contrasts with the sustained avoidance of gaze on mere images of spiders found over 3 s (Hermans et al., 1999; Rinck & Becker, 2006), 9 s (Pflugshaupt et al., 2007) and 60 s (Rinck & Becker, 2006) trials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hermans et al., 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Rinck & Becker, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pflugshaupt et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The finding of no orienting bias towards threat in depression is consistent with a recent meta-analysis of RT studies (Peckham et al., 2010) which found no bias for threatening stimuli in depressed versus non-depressed individuals.

    “This finding is consistent with a recent meta-analysis of RT studies of attentional bias in depression, which found no bias for threatening stimuli in depressed compared to non-depressed individuals (Peckham et al., 2010; see also Mogg & Bradley, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Peckham et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Mogg & Bradley, 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Anxious individuals showed a slight increase in orienting to positive stimuli compared to non-anxious, while depressed individuals showed a tendency to orient gaze less to positive stimuli compared to non-depressed.

    “Also, whereas anxious individuals showed a slight increase in orienting to positive stimuli compared to non-anxious individuals, depressed individuals showed a tendency to orient gaze less to positive stimuli, compared to non-depressed individuals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Depressed individuals showed a tendency to maintain gaze on dysphoric stimuli longer than non-depressed individuals during extended viewing (10 to 30 s), and this bias was most pronounced in depressed individuals meeting full diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder.

    “Depressed individuals also showed a tendency to maintain gaze on dysphoric stimuli longer than non-depressed individuals during extended viewing (10 to 30 s), and this bias was most pronounced in depressed individuals meeting full diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    In the present review, the majority of studies examining attentional avoidance measured fixation duration on stimuli as a function of time.

    “In the present review, the majority of studies examining attentional avoidance measured fixation duration on stimuli as a function of time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Effect sizes were mostly consistent across studies of depression, and combined effects were largely consistent with RT research on attentional biases in depression.

    “However, effect sizes were mostly consistent across studies of depression, and the combined effects were largely consistent with RT research on attentional biases in depression (Peckham et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peckham et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Depression is characterized by an attentional bias for dysphoric stimuli and possible neglect of positive stimuli.

    “a smaller literature suggesting an attentional bias for dysphoric stimuli and possible neglect of positive stimuli in depression (Peckham, McHugh, & Otto, 2010)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peckham, McHugh, & Otto, 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The continuous nature of eye tracking provides an important advance in characterizing the time course and components of attentional bias.

    “the continuous nature of eye tracking provides an important advance in characterizing the time course and components of attentional bias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Anxiety has been examined with both free viewing and visual search eye tracking paradigms, whereas depression has only been investigated in free viewing eye tracking tasks.

    “Whereas anxiety has been examined with both free viewing and visual search eye tracking paradigms, depression has only been investigated in free viewing eye tracking tasks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    In anxiety research, it is unclear to what extent increased processing of threat reflects facilitated orienting toward threat versus difficulty disengaging attention from threat.

    “In research on anxiety disorders, it is still unclear to what extent increased processing of threat reflects facilitated orienting toward threat versus difficulty disengaging attention from threat (Weierich, Treat, & Hollingworth, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Weierich, Treat, & Hollingworth, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In naturalistic viewing, eye movements are the primary means of attentional selection, with covert attention largely relegated to guiding eye movements.

    “in naturalistic viewing, EMs are the primary means of attentional selection, with covert attention largely relegated to guiding EMs (Hayhoe & Ballard, 2005; Findlay & Gilchrist, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hayhoe & Ballard, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Findlay & Gilchrist, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    The components involved in biases related to dysphoric and positive stimuli in depression remain unclear.

    “the components involved in the biases related to dysphoric and positive stimuli remain unclear.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Overall, anxious participants showed a marginal tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat compared to non-anxious individuals and this effect was particularly pronounced in spider phobia.

    “Overall, anxious participants showed a marginal tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat compared to non-anxious individuals and this effect was particularly pronounced in spider phobia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Computing the between-groups effect for visual search without the within-subjects baseline yielded equivalent results.

    “Computing the between groups effect without this within-subjects baseline yielded equivalent results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The present review provides the first meta-analysis of EM biases for emotional stimuli in affective disorders.

    “The present review provides the first meta-analysis of EM biases for emotional stimuli in affective disorders.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    An overt orienting bias towards threat characterizes anxiety, but not depression.

    “Thus, it appears that an overt orienting bias towards threat characterizes anxiety, but not depression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    An orienting bias for threat in free viewing did not characterize depressed individuals compared to non-depressed individuals, suggesting that vigilance for threat is specific to anxiety.

    “An orienting bias for threat in free viewing did not characterize depressed individuals compared to non-depressed individuals, suggesting that vigilance for threat is specific to anxiety (Mogg & Bradley, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mogg & Bradley, 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The event-related variable provides a more direct measure of initial orienting than the epoch-related variable.

    “the event-related variable was selected, because it provides a more direct measure of initial orienting”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    In studies of anxiety, the vigilance hypothesis was supported in both free viewing and visual search tasks: anxious individuals were characterized by an orienting bias towards threat during free viewing and facilitated detection of threat during visual search, compared to non-anxious individuals.

    “In studies of anxiety, the vigilance hypothesis was supported in both free viewing and visual search tasks: anxious individuals were characterized by an orienting bias towards threat during free viewing and facilitated detection of threat during visual search, compared to non-anxious individuals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The within-groups effects alone were not interpretable, as the search conditions without threatening stimuli were not always matched for difficulty with the conditions containing distractors.

    “The within-groups effects alone were not interpretable, as the search conditions without threatening stimuli were not always matched for difficulty with the conditions containing distractors (e.g., Miltner et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miltner et al., 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Emotional stimuli can undermine endogenous control in the initial maintenance of gaze, but such stimulus-driven effects appear to wane quickly in the later maintenance of gaze.

    “Whereas emotional stimuli can undermine endogenous control in the initial maintenance of gaze, such stimulus-driven effects appear to wane quickly in the later maintenance of gaze (Nummenmaa, et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nummenmaa, et al., 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    This effect was based mostly on studies of spider phobic individuals, who showed the strongest tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat in free viewing tasks.

    “Interestingly, this effect was based mostly on studies of spider phobic individuals, who showed the strongest tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat in free viewing tasks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Facilitated overt threat detection in anxiety may still involve an exogenous orienting bias, albeit one that is capacity-limited, and only effective once gaze is directed to a nearby distracter.

    “Such facilitated overt threat detection in anxiety may still involve an exogenous orienting bias, albeit one that is capacity-limited, and only effective once gaze is directed to a nearby distracter, bringing the threatening stimulus within a range of eccentricity from which it can attract attention under perceptual load.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Facilitated detection of threatening targets could also be achieved through shorter fixations on neutral distractors.

    “Whereas an exogenous orienting bias for threatening targets would result in fewer fixations on neutral distractors, facilitated detection of threatening targets could also be achieved through shorter fixations on neutral distractors (c.f. Rinck & Becker, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rinck & Becker, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    One component of hypervigilance for threat in anxiety may be the ability to rapidly disengage from neutral stimuli during the search for threat, a process that would draw on endogenous, top-down control of attention.

    “One component of hypervigilance for threat in anxiety may be the ability to rapidly disengage from neutral stimuli during the search for threat, a process that would draw on the endogenous, top-down control of attention.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Threats related to traumatic events present greater urgency and danger compared to spiders, and thus may be more difficult to ignore.

    “Threats related to traumatic events (combat: Kimble et al., 2012; physical assault: Felmingham et al., 2011) present greater urgency and danger compared to spiders, and thus may be more difficult to ignore.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kimble et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Felmingham et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Reflexive saccades typical of purely exogenous capture have a latency of 150 to 175 ms.

    “As Nummenmaa and colleagues (2006) note, reflexive saccades typical of purely exogenous capture (e.g., resulting from the sudden onset of a stimulus with a sharply contrasting basic feature) have a latency of 150 to 175 ms (Rayner, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Nummenmaa and colleagues (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Rayner, 1998 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Gaze avoidance may be particularly strong in spider phobia because spider fearful individuals find spiders disgusting and may be revolted by the perceptual features of spiders.

    “Gaze avoidance may be particularly strong in spider phobia because spider fearful individuals find spiders disgusting (e.g., Mulkens, de Jong, & Merckelbach, 1996), and may be revolted by the perceptual features of spiders (Royzman & Sabini, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Mulkens, de Jong, & Merckelbach, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Royzman & Sabini, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In anxious individuals, panic search may be triggered when individuals anticipate the presence of threat.

    “In anxious individuals, this so-called ‘panic search’ may be triggered when individuals anticipate the presence of threat.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The present findings leave open the possibility that facilitated threat detection in anxiety also involves more rapid disengagement from neutral stimuli, a process that may rely on endogenous attentional control.

    “However, the present findings leave open the possibility that facilitated threat detection in anxiety also involves more rapid disengagement from neutral stimuli, a process that may rely on endogenous attentional control.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    In a free viewing task, there is no task incentive to disengage attention from threat, but there may be an affective incentive because threat stimuli arouse anxiety or fear.

    “In a free viewing task, there is no task incentive to disengage attention from threat, yet there may be an affective incentive, as threat stimuli arouse anxiety or fear.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Anxious individuals decide whether or not to sustain attention on threat according to a cost-benefit analysis.

    “However, an alternative explanation is that anxious individuals decide whether or not to sustain attention on threat according to a cost-benefit analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Inhibitory control deficits related to anxiety may be more threat-specific in the engagement of attention compared to the shifting of attention because more information is available once a stimulus is engaged, reducing false alarms.

    “Inhibitory control deficits related to anxiety (Eysenck et al., 2007) may be more threat-specific in the engagement of attention compared to the shifting of attention because more information is available once a stimulus is engaged, reducing ‘false alarms.’”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eysenck et al., 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    RT research suggests that when spider phobics anticipate the possibility of a spider distractor, the stimulus-driven system becomes dominant, leading to increased exogenous shifting to all distractors.

    “This finding is consistent with RT research suggesting that when spider phobics anticipate the possibility of a spider distractor, the stimulus-driven system becomes dominant, leading to increased exogenous shifting to all distractors (Devue, Belopolsky, & Theeuwes, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Devue, Belopolsky, & Theeuwes, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Anxious individuals may feel compelled to continue monitoring more urgent danger cues at the cost of increased anxiety.

    “However, these individuals may feel compelled to continue monitoring more urgent danger cues (e.g., a live tarantula in a nearby box) at the cost of increased anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Anxiety appears to increase the exogenous system's sensitivity to threatening stimuli, whereas depression appears to decrease the system's sensitivity to positive stimuli.

    “Anxiety appears to increase the exogenous system’s sensitivity to threatening stimuli, whereas depression appears to decrease the system’s sensitivity to positive stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Spider fearful individuals may learn to cope with the presence of spiders by looking elsewhere, while individuals with PTSD may perceive the need to maintain attention on trauma cues to avoid immediate harm.

    “Whereas spider fearful individuals may learn to cope with the presence of spiders by looking elsewhere, individuals with PTSD may perceive the need to maintain attention on trauma cues to avoid immediate harm.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Gerdes et al. (2008) found spider phobics were slower to detect a neutral target due to longer fixations rather than more frequent fixations on a spider distractor, suggesting difficulty disengaging attention from threat.

    “Although this finding could reflect more frequent shifting of gaze to threatening distractors (Miltner et al., 2008), rather than difficulty disengaging gaze from these distractors (Rinck & Becker, 2006), Gerdes, Alpers, and Pauli (2008) found that spider phobics were slower to detect a neutral target due to longer fixations rather than more frequent fixations on a spider distractor, suggesting”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gerdes, Alpers, and Pauli (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Tripartite structural theories posit a general factor and disorder-specific factors for anxiety/depression.

    “In tripartite structural theories of internalizing disorders (e.g., Clark & Watson, 1991), the development of anxiety and depression can be understood in terms of a general factor (e.g., negative affect or neuroticism) that confers risk for both disorders, as well as disorder-specific factors, such as anxious arousal or low positive affect, which specifically confer risk for anxiety or depression,”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Clark & Watson, 1991 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Oehlberg, Revelle, & Mineka, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Derakshan et al. (2009) found anxious individuals executed saccades away from a threatening face as effectively as non-anxious individuals (similar error rates), but their correct saccades had longer latencies, suggesting less efficiency disengaging covert attention.

    “Derakshan, Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, and Eysenck (2009) found that anxious individuals were able to execute saccades away from a threatening face as effectively as non-anxious individuals (i.e., with similar error rates); however, their correct saccades away from threatening faces had longer latencies, suggesting less efficiency disengaging covert attention from threatening faces in order to”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Derakshan, Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, and Eysenck (2009)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Anxious individuals may be able to disengage attention as effectively as non-anxious individuals in certain contexts, but such disengagement is less efficient, as anxious individuals apply more effort to compensate for attentional control deficits.

    “As Berggren and Derakshan (in press) explain, anxious individuals may be able to disengage attention as effectively as non-anxious individuals in certain contexts, but such disengagement is less efficient, as anxious individuals apply more effort in order to compensate for attentional control deficits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berggren and Derakshan (in press)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Additional effort may compensate for and conceal difficulty disengaging attention from threat in anxious individuals, reducing the sensitivity of free viewing tasks in detecting this bias.

    “This additional effort may compensate for, and thus conceal, difficulty disengaging attention from threat in anxious individuals (Ansari & Derakshan, 2011b), reducing the sensitivity of free viewing tasks in detecting this bias.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ansari & Derakshan, 2011b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Anxious individuals rate threatening stimuli as more unpleasant and voluntarily terminate exposure to threatening images sooner than non-anxious individuals, so they have a greater affective incentive to disengage attention from threat and may exert more effort towards this end.

    “Given that anxious individuals rate threatening stimuli as more unpleasant (e.g., Rinck & Becker, 2006), and have been observed to voluntarily terminate exposure to threatening images sooner compared to non-anxious individuals (Tolin, Lohr, Lee, & Sawchuk, 1999), it follows that anxious individuals have a greater affective incentive to disengage attention from threat, and may exert more effort”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rinck & Becker, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tolin, Lohr, Lee, & Sawchuk, 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Training attention over longer viewing windows appears to be more effective at modifying attentional bias in depression and reducing symptoms of depression compared to training over a shorter viewing period.

    “Indeed, training attention over longer viewing windows (e.g., 3 s, 4.5 s; Wells & Beevers, 2010) appears to be more effective at modifying attentional bias in depression and reducing symptoms of depression, compared to training over a shorter viewing period (1.5 s; Baert, De Raedt, Schacht, & Koster, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Wells & Beevers, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Baert, De Raedt, Schacht, & Koster, 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A positivity bias appears to promote resilience, and initial evidence suggests that biases for positive stimuli can be induced through training and may have beneficial effects.

    “A positivity bias appears to promote resilience (see Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2011), and initial evidence suggests that biases for positive stimuli can be induced through training and may have beneficial effects (Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Fox et al.'s (2001) spatial cueing study found greater difficulty disengaging covert attention from incongruent threat cues presented at 100 ms or 250 ms SOAs in anxious individuals compared to controls.

    “These authors cite Fox et al.’s (2001) spatial cueing study, which found greater difficulty disengaging covert attention from incongruent threat cues presented at 100 ms or 250 ms SOAs in anxious individuals compared to controls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fox et al.’s (2001) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Concerns have been raised that training attention away from threat in anxiety could engender attentional avoidance of threat, which is believed to impair emotional processing and maintain anxiety.

    “Concerns have been raised about training attention away from threat in anxiety, as it could engender attentional avoidance of threat, which is believed to impair emotional processing and maintain anxiety (Koster, Baert, Bockstaele, & De Raedt, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Koster, Baert, Bockstaele, & De Raedt, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Koster et al. (2010) found that training attention away from threat did not affect vigilance for threat in the modified dot probe (100 ms SOA), but led to later avoidance of threat (1500 ms SOA), similar to spider phobia in the present meta-analysis.

    “Indeed, Koster et al., (2010) found that training attention away from threat did not affect vigilance for threat in the modified dot probe (100 ms SOA); however, it did lead to later avoidance of threat (1500 ms SOA), a bias similar to that observed in spider phobia in the present meta-analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Koster et al., (2010) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Deldin et al. (2001) found that individuals with major depressive disorder show a reduced slow wave (SW) component while maintaining positive adjectives in working memory compared to controls.

    “Deldin, Deveney, Kim, Casas, and Best (2001) found that individuals with major depressive disorder show a reduced slow wave (SW) component while maintaining positive adjectives in working memory, compared to controls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Deldin, Deveney, Kim, Casas, and Best (2001)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Depressed individuals may voluntarily maintain gaze less on positive stimuli because they are less sensitive to the intrinsic pleasantness of the stimuli, reducing their incentive to maintain gaze.

    “Depressed individuals may voluntarily maintain gaze less on positive stimuli because they are less sensitive to the intrinsic pleasantness of the stimuli, reducing their incentive to maintain gaze.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    It is unclear to what extent individuals make EMs during attention training.

    “Currently, it is unclear to what extent individuals make EMs during attention training.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Studies demonstrate that training attention away from threat leads to functional improvement in anxiety, and one study suggests an analogous effect related to dysphoric stimuli in depression.

    “Recently there have been a number of studies demonstrating that training attention away from threat leads to functional improvement in anxiety (Hallion & Ruscio, 2011), and one study suggests an analogous effect related to dysphoric stimuli in depression (Wells & Beevers, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hallion & Ruscio, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wells & Beevers, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the unweighted version of the dot probe, EMs to either cue have been found to occur on 30% of trials overall; some individuals make EMs on more than half of trials, whereas others hardly make any EMs.

    “In the unweighted version of the dot probe (which is used as a control condition in training studies), EMs to either cue have been found to occur on 30% of trials overall; some individuals make EMs on more than half of trials, whereas others hardly make any EMs (Bradley, Mogg, & Millar, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bradley, Mogg, & Millar, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If an attentional bias towards dysphoric content in depression requires the maintenance of negative content in working memory, it could explain why an initial orienting bias towards dysphoric content in depression was not found.

    “If an attentional bias towards dysphoric content in depression indeed requires the maintenance of negative content in working memory, it could explain why an initial orienting bias towards dysphoric content in depression was not found, as such a bias would operate before negative content begins to “stick” in working memory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Behavioral research has found that depression is characterized by decreased maintenance of positive stimuli in working memory relative to controls.

    “Behavioral research has also found that depression is characterized by decreased maintenance of positive stimuli in working memory relative to controls (Levens & Gotlib, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Levens & Gotlib, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If the maintenance bias in anxiety were limited to covert attention in the first 250 ms of stimulus processing, it would call into question the functional significance of the bias.

    “However, if the maintenance bias in anxiety were limited to covert attention in the first 250 ms of stimulus processing, it would call into question the functional significance of the bias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Visual search analysis had a small number of studies (k = 5), almost entirely spider phobias (k = 4), raising concern about generalizability to other anxiety disorders.

    “There were also a small number of studies in the analysis of visual search tasks (k = 5), and these studies consisted almost entirely of studies of spider phobias (k = 4), raising concern about the generalizability of the present findings to other anxiety disorders.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Shorter fixations on threat, but not increased overall dwell time, has been found in contamination fear.

    “Likewise, shorter fixations on threat, but not increased overall dwell time, has been found in contamination fear (Armstrong et al., 2012)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Armstrong et al., 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The absence of an initial orienting bias for threat in anxiety in visual search suggests that boundary conditions are present, likely depending on perceptual load/eccentricity or their interaction.

    “In the analysis of vigilance for threat in visual search tasks, the absence of an initial orienting bias for threat in anxiety suggests that such boundary conditions are present, and likely depend on one of these factors or their interaction (Acunzo & Henderson, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Acunzo & Henderson, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Attentional avoidance could be achieved by rapid disengagement from threat or by maintenance of gaze at a distant location.

    “attentional avoidance could be achieved by rapid disengagement from threat or by maintenance of gaze at a distant location”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Few studies examined attention to threat beyond three seconds of exposure, and many studies employed even shorter trials.

    “Another limitation of extant research is that few studies examined attention to threat beyond three seconds of exposure, and many studies employed even shorter trials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Basic research suggests that the ability of threatening stimuli to capture gaze is affected by perceptual load and eccentricity.

    “Basic research suggests that the ability of threatening stimuli to capture gaze is affected by how many competing stimuli are present (perceptual load; Yates et al., 2010) and how far into the periphery stimuli are presented (eccentricity; Calvo, Nummenmaa, & Hyönä, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Yates et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Calvo, Nummenmaa, & Hyönä, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Facilitated detection of threat (vigilance) could derive from an orienting bias for threat or from rapid disengagement from neutral distractors.

    “facilitated detection of threat (i.e., vigilance) could derive from an orienting bias for threat or from rapid disengagement from neutral distractors”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pflugshaupt et al. (2005) found evidence of avoidance in the distance between a fixation's coordinates and the nearest spider, and examined this relationship as a function of the ordinal number of the fixation.

    “Pflugshaupte et al. (2005) embedded spiders in images of household scenes and found evidence of avoidance in the distance between a fixation’s coordinates and the nearest spider; further, they examined this relationship as a function of the ordinal number of the fixation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pflugshaupte et al. (2005)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sears et al. (2010) found that depressed individuals were slower initiating saccades away from dysphoric images, but not other image types, compared to non-depressed individuals, and this maintenance bias was not revealed in a free viewing condition of their study.

    “Sears et al. (2010) found that depressed individuals were slower initiating saccades away from dysphoric images, but not other image types (i.e., threatening, pleasant, neutral) compared to non-depressed individuals, a maintenance bias that was not revealed in a free viewing condition of their study.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sears et al. (2010) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Free viewing studies may fail to observe increased maintenance of attention on threat because the phenomenon occurs early in the covert deployment of attention, and thus eludes EM data.

    “Thus, free viewing studies may fail to observe increased maintenance of attention on threat because the phenomenon occurs early in the covert deployment of attention, and thus eludes EM data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The present meta-analytic findings suggest that increased maintenance of gaze on threat in anxiety is best observed in a task in which all participants are explicitly required to disengage attention from threat.

    “The present meta-analytic findings suggest that increased maintenance of gaze on threat in anxiety is best observed in a task in which all participants are explicitly required to disengage attention from threat.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Boundary conditions of increased orienting to threat in anxiety have not been clearly outlined.

    “For example, the boundary conditions of increased orienting to threat in anxiety have not been clearly outlined.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Analyses of orienting towards threatening (k = 4) and positive stimuli in depression (k = 6), and extended maintenance of gaze in depression (k = 6), had far fewer studies than anxiety analyses.

    “Although the analyses of initial orienting towards threat (k = 20) and maintenance of attention on threat (k = 16) in anxiety drew on a moderate number of studies, there were far fewer studies in the analysis of orienting towards threatening (k = 4) and positive stimuli in depression (k = 6), as well as in the analysis of extended maintenance of gaze in depression (k = 6).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    A more thorough investigation of the time course of attentional bias for threat could not be fully realized in the present analysis.

    “Thus, a more thorough investigation of the time course of attentional bias for threat—one of the chief promises of eye tracking methodology— could not be fully realized in the present analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Increased attention on dysphoric stimuli (maintenance) could occur through voluntary or involuntary attentional engagement.

    “increased attention on dysphoric stimuli (i.e., maintenance) could occur through voluntary or involuntary attentional engagement”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    An over-reliance on broad constructs such as vigilance, maintenance, or avoidance in the interpretation of eye movement data has the potential to obscure underlying attentional mechanisms.

    “an over-reliance on broad constructs, such as vigilance, maintenance, or avoidance in the interpretation of EM data has the potential to obscure underlying attentional mechanisms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    An over-reliance on broad attentional constructs can stifle the discovery and exploration of novel gaze biases.

    “An over-reliance on broad attentional constructs can also stifle the discovery and exploration of novel gaze biases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Attentional avoidance may also be seen in the distance between a fixation point and the nearest threatening stimulus.

    “However, attentional avoidance may also be seen in the distance between a fixation point and the nearest threatening stimulus.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
81 of 81

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Eye tracking has the potential to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases.

    “Given the potential of eye tracking to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases, a meta-analysis was conducted on the extant literature.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.

    “Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat.

    “In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value across alpha = .05: Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05

    Major

    The paper reports p < .05 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .338. The two fall on opposite sides of alpha = .05. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .338

  • Inconsistent p-value: Q (5) = .66, p = .97

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .97 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .985. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .97 · recomputed p = .985

  • Inconsistent p-value: Q (3) = .55, p = .95

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .95 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .908. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .95 · recomputed p = .908

  • Inconsistent p-value: Q (5) = 4.75, p = .55

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .55 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .447. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .55 · recomputed p = .447

  • Inconsistent p-value: Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .05 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .060. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .060

  • Inconsistent p-value: Q (2) = .05, p = .79

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .79 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .975. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .79 · recomputed p = .975

6 of 6

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upQ(4) = 4.54reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .338The two fall on opposite sides of .05

    “Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05”

  • Doesn’t add upQ(3) = 0.55reported p = .95 · recomputed p = .908

    “Q (3) = .55, p = .95”

  • Doesn’t add upQ(5) = 4.75reported p = .55 · recomputed p = .447

    “Q (5) = 4.75, p = .55”

  • Doesn’t add upQ(1) = 3.54reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .060

    “Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05”

  • Doesn’t add upQ(2) = 0.05reported p = .79 · recomputed p = .975

    “Q (2) = .05, p = .79”

  • Doesn’t add upQ(5) = 0.66reported p = .97 · recomputed p = .985

    “Q (5) = .66, p = .97”

  • ConsistentQ(19) = 47.09reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “Q (19) = 47.09, p < .001”

  • ConsistentQ(10) = 17.66reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .061

    “Q (10) = 17.66, p = .06”

  • ConsistentQ(1) = 6.72reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010

    “Q (1) = 6.72, p = .01”

  • ConsistentQ(5) = 8.78reported p = .12 · recomputed p = .118

    “Q (5) = 8.78, p = .12”

  • ConsistentQ(15) = 58.08reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “Q (15) = 58.08, p < .001”

  • ConsistentQ(4) = 24.13reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “Q (4) = 24.13, p < .001”

  • ConsistentQ(4) = 23.45reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “Q (4) = 23.45, p < .001”

  • ConsistentQ(1) = 0.1reported p = .76 · recomputed p = .752

    “Q (1) = .10, p = .76”

  • ConsistentQ(5) = 1.9reported p = .86 · recomputed p = .863

    “Q (5) = 1.9, p = .86”

  • ConsistentQ(5) = 9.77reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .082

    “Q (5) = 9.77, p = .08”

  • ConsistentQ(1) = 4.4reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .036

    “Q (1) = 4.40, p < .05”

  • ConsistentQ(3) = 10.89reported p < .02 · recomputed p = .012

    “Q (3) = 10.89, p < .02”

  • ConsistentQ(4) = 8.28reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .082

    “Q (4) = 8.28, p = .08”

19 of 19

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Incorrect heterogeneity degrees of freedom for social anxiety studies

    Minor

    A heterogeneity Q test across seven studies has k − 1 = 6 degrees of freedom, not the reported 4.

    Reported 4 · recomputed 6

  • Discussion calls a nonsignificant overall result marginal

    Minor

    The discussion describes an overall marginal tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat, but the results state that the overall group difference was not significant (p = .26).

  • PTSD confidence interval is inconsistent with its effect size

    Minor

    The two reported confidence limits have a midpoint of −.60 and do not contain the reported effect size of +.60.

    Reported 0.6 · recomputed -0.6

  • Incorrect heterogeneity degrees of freedom for OCD studies

    Minor

    A heterogeneity Q test across two studies has k − 1 = 1 degree of freedom, not the reported 4.

    Reported 4 · recomputed 1

  • Dysphoric-orienting confidence interval is not centered on its effect size

    Minor

    The reported confidence limits have a midpoint of .045, not the reported Hedges's g of .18. This difference exceeds rounding to the printed precision.

    Reported 0.18 · recomputed 0.045

  • Conflicting counts of orienting-variable types

    Minor

    The methods count 17 event-related and 3 epoch-related vigilance analyses, while the results count 16 and 4, respectively, for the 20-study anxiety orienting analysis.

6 of 6

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O.
Affiliations
Vanderbilt University (US)
Corresponding author
Armstrong, Thomas
ORCID
Venue
Clinical Psychology Review
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2012-12
Volume
32
Issue
8
Pages
704-723
ISSN
0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.004
PMC
PMC3556338
OpenAlex
W2104609554
Cited by
1,049
References
140
Citations by year
2026: 71 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 105 · 2020: 148 · 2019: 92 · 2018: 84 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 1
FWCI
5.24
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (F31MH087018)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Visual Attention and Saliency Detection
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords
eye tracking, attentional bias, mood disorders, anxiety, depression, threat vigilance, visual search, free viewing, emotional stimuli
MeSH terms
Anxiety Disorders, Arousal, Attention, Depressive Disorder, Emotions, Eye Movements, Facial Expression, Fixation, Ocular, Humans, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Reaction Time

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review