The DOI matches its Crossref record; 144 of the 144 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 103 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis
Open accessAbstract
A large body of research has demonstrated that affective disorders are characterized by attentional biases for emotional stimuli. However, this research relies heavily on manual reaction time (RT) measures that cannot fully delineate the time course and components of attentional bias. Eye tracking technology, which allows relatively direct and continuous measurement of overt visual attention, may provide an important supplement to RT measures. This article reviews eye tracking research on anxiety and depression, evaluating the experimental paradigms and eye movement indicators used to study attentional biases. Also included is a meta-analysis of extant eye tracking research (33 experiments; N=1579) on both anxiety and depression. Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing and visual search, and showed difficulty disengaging from threat in visual search tasks, but not during free viewing. In contrast, depressed individuals were not characterized by vigilance for threat during free viewing, but were characterized by reduced orienting to positive stimuli, as well as reduced maintenance of gaze on positive stimuli and increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli. Implications of these findings for theoretical accounts of attentional bias in anxiety and depression are discussed, and avenues for future research using eye-tracking technology are outlined.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This meta-analytic review synthesizes 33 eye-tracking experiments (N = 1579) on attentional biases in anxiety and depression. Anxiety was linked to increased vigilance for threat, while depression was linked to reduced orienting to and maintenance of positive stimuli and increased maintenance of dysphoric stimuli.
Key findings
- Anxious individuals showed an orienting bias toward threat in free viewing compared with non-anxious individuals (k = 20; g = .47, p < .001, CI = .25, .69; FSN = 203), but no significant orienting bias toward pleasant stimuli (k = 11; g = .11, p = .38).
- Depressed individuals did not show an orienting bias toward threat (k = 4; g = −.01, p = .95), but showed reduced orienting toward pleasant stimuli (k = 6; g = −.24, p < .05, CI = −.47, −.004; FSN = 6).
- In free viewing, anxious individuals did not differ overall in initial maintenance of gaze on threat (k = 16; g = −.17, p = .26), though spider phobia showed decreased maintenance (k = 3; g = −1.02, p < .001) and PTSD showed marginally increased maintenance (k = 2; g = .60, p = .05).
- In visual search, anxious individuals fixated threatening targets faster (k = 4; g = −.59, p < .04) and maintained attention longer on threatening distractors (k = 5; g = .54, p < .01); depressed individuals showed longer extended maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli (k = 6; g = .46, p < .01) and less on positive stimuli (k = 6; g = −.80, p < .001).
Methods
- PsycINFO and PubMed were searched for eye-tracking studies of anxiety or depression in adults; inclusion required eye tracking (video-based infrared or electro-oculography), adult anxiety/depression, and simultaneous emotional and neutral stimuli in regular arrays competing for attention.
- The meta-analysis included 33 experiments with 1579 participants (anxious N = 563; non-anxious N = 532; depressed N = 162; non-depressed N = 257; unselected N = 65); 28 experiments used free viewing (N = 1337) and 5 used visual search in anxiety (N = 242).
- Effect sizes used Hedges’s g with random-effects models; heterogeneity was tested with Q and I², moderators with categorical and meta-regression analyses, and publication bias with fail-safe N.
Limitations
- The paper states that eye tracking measures overt attention only and may miss covert attentional allocation, especially for the maintenance hypothesis; free viewing studies may fail to observe maintenance biases if they occur covertly before initial fixation.
- The paper states that several analyses relied on small numbers of studies, including depression orienting (k = 4), depression positive orienting (k = 6), depression extended maintenance (k = 6), and visual search (k = 5, mostly spider phobia k = 4), limiting generalizability.
- The paper states that few studies examined threat beyond 3 seconds, so the full time course of attentional bias could not be realized; evident from the text, anxiety analyses showed significant heterogeneity and moderator analyses provided limited explanation.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
0 of 103 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“were characterized by reduced orienting to positive stimuli”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing and visual search”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relative to controls, anxious individuals showed increased vigilance for threat during free viewing and visual search”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“depressed individuals were not characterized by vigilance for threat during free viewing”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“showed difficulty disengaging from threat in visual search tasks, but not during free viewing.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“showed difficulty disengaging from threat in visual search tasks, but not during free viewing.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reduced maintenance of gaze on positive stimuli”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The only significant moderator was the operational definition of vigilance [event versus epoch-related variable: Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05].”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the moderator analysis provided limited insight into this variance.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“anxious individuals initially oriented gaze towards threat more frequently than non-anxious individuals, as revealed by a significant combined effect size for group differences in orienting bias for threat (k = 20; g = .47, p < .001, CI = .25, .69; FSN: 203)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anxious individuals did not significantly differ from non-anxious individuals in orienting towards pleasant stimuli (k = 11; g = .11, p = .38, CI = −.13, .35; Figure 3).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals also showed increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli, but not on threatening stimuli, compared to non-depressed individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anxious individuals fixated threatening targets faster, compared to non-anxious individuals (k = 4; g = −.59, p < .04, CI = −1.15, −.04; FSN = 17).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Visual search tasks
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Type of anxiety disorder significantly moderated group differences in initial maintenance of gaze on threat, Q (4) = 24.13, p < .001.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Maintenance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals showed a blunted orienting response to pleasant stimuli compared to non-depressed individuals, a bias not seen in anxious individuals compared to non-anxious individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the combined effect size was not significant (k = 6; g = .18, p = .27, CI = −.18, .27; heterogeneity: Q (5) = 8.78, p = .12, I2 = 43.02).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The orienting bias towards threat in anxiety was heterogeneous in nature, as would be expected given the methodological variance in the free viewing studies reviewed.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The most frequently observed effect in eye tracking studies of anxiety disorders is a spatial orienting bias towards threat in anxious versus non-anxious individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An ‘anhedonic bias’ was also observed in the extended maintenance of gaze, where depressed individuals again showed reduced attention to pleasant stimuli, compared to non-depressed individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals showed a blunted orienting response to pleasant stimuli compared to non-depressed individuals, a bias not seen in anxious individuals compared to non-anxious individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anxious individuals maintained attention longer on threatening distractors compared to non-anxious individuals (k = 5; g = .54, p < .01, CI = .17, .92; FSN = 26).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Visual search tasks
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“The medium effect size of this bias (g = .47) is consistent with the effect size observed for anxious versus non-anxious individuals in Bar-Haim et al.’s (2007) review of RT measures of attentional bias for threat (d = .41).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bar-Haim et al.’s (2007) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The combined effect size was larger in studies reporting an event-related orienting variable (k = 16, g = .58, CI = .33, .83, p < .001) compared to studies only reporting an epoch-related orienting variable (k = 4, g = .12, CI = −.27, .51, p = .19).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies of PTSD found marginally significant increased maintenance of gaze in anxious relative to non-anxious participants (k = 2; g = .60, p = .05, CI = .01, −1.21; Q (1) = .10, p = .76, I2 = 0.0).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Maintenance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies of spider phobia found significantly decreased maintenance of gaze on threat in anxious relative to non-anxious participants (k = 3; g = −1.02, p < .001, CI = −1.41, −.64; Q (2) = .05, p = .79, I2 = 0.0).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Maintenance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“depressed individuals maintained gaze on dysphoric stimuli longer than non-depressed individuals (k = 6; g = .46, p < .01, CI = .12, .80; FSN = 28).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Extended maintenance of gaze in depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference in orienting towards threat in anxious versus non-anxious individuals was significantly different compared to the difference in orienting towards threat in depressed versus non-depressed individuals, Q (1) = 6.72, p = .01”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This difference in orienting towards pleasant stimuli in depressed versus non-depressed individuals was significantly different compared to the difference in orienting towards pleasant stimuli in anxious versus non-anxious individuals, Q = 4.10, p < .05”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anxious individuals did not differ overall in their initial maintenance of gaze on threat compared to non-anxious individuals (k = 16; g = −.17, p = .26, CI = −.47, .13; Figure 4).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Maintenance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The only factor that appeared to moderate the orienting bias towards threat was its operational definition.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals oriented towards pleasant stimuli less compared to non-depressed individuals (k = 6; g = −.24, p < .05 CI = −.47, −.004; FSN = 6;).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals also showed increased maintenance of gaze on dysphoric stimuli, but not on threatening stimuli, compared to non-depressed individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals did not show an orienting bias towards threat, compared to non-depressed individuals (k = 4; g = −.01, p = .95 CI = −.30, .28).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“depressed individuals maintained gaze on positive stimuli less than non-depressed individuals (k = 6; g = −.80, p < .001, CI = −1.04, −.56; FSN = 84).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Extended maintenance of gaze in depression
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This was in sharp contrast to studies of spider phobia, which found a strong tendency to avoid initially maintaining gaze on threat in anxious versus non-anxious individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, an initial maintenance bias for threat was found in PTSD during free viewing.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Support for the maintenance hypothesis was far less consistent than support for the vigilance hypothesis.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The average latency of initial fixations on threat in anxious individuals ranged from roughly 225 to 400 ms (Armstrong et al., 2010; Garner et al., 2006; Mogg et al., 2000).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contrary to the maintenance hypothesis, anxious individuals overall did not show increased initial maintenance of gaze on threat compared to non-anxious individuals in free viewing tasks.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the visual search studies reviewed herein, there was no report of facilitated detection of threat targets in the initial fixation of a trial.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies reporting only an epoch-related indicator (i.e., fixation duration in initial 500 ms) had difficulty observing the bias, compared to studies using an event-related indicator (i.e., proportion of initial fixations captured).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compared to non-anxious individuals, anxious individuals were slower locating neutral targets accompanied by a threatening distractor.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In free viewing tasks, EMs to threatening stimuli were not completed until roughly 225 ms to 400 ms after stimulus onset (Armstrong et al., 2010; Garner et al., 2006; Mogg et al., 2000), suggesting that increased maintenance of visual attention on threat could occur prior to one’s initial fixation on threat.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, the present analysis revealed that the expression of each bias is context dependent”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, from the few studies that did employ longer trials, it appears that trends present in the initial maintenance of attention continue over a larger time scale.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, the present finding of decreased maintenance of gaze on threat in spider phobia was found to hold throughout the course of longer trials (9 s: Pflugshaupte et al., 2007; 60 s: Rinck & Becker, 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pflugshaupte et al., 2007
- Not checked yetcites Rinck & Becker, 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Also, the present finding of increased initial maintenance of gaze on threat in PTSD was found to continue over 10 s trials (Kimble et al., 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kimble et al., 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A large majority of the eye tracking studies reviewed herein were framed as tests of the vigilance and maintenance hypotheses.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“in an unselected sample, instructions not to look at emotional images (i.e., look at the accompanying neutral image) had more effect on initial maintenance of gaze compared to initial orienting of gaze”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > Operational definitions of vigilance and maintenance of attention in studies of anxiety
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Numenmaa et al., 2006
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although there is substantial evidence that anxiety and depression are characterized by attentional biases, the nature of these biases is not completely understood.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Numenmaa et al. (2006) found that initial maintenance of gaze on emotional stimuli likely involves both endogenous and exogenous effects”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > Operational definitions of vigilance and maintenance of attention in studies of anxiety
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Numenmaa et al., 2006
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Eye tracking technology, which allows relatively direct and continuous measurement of overt visual attention, may provide an important supplement to RT measures.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“saccadic EMs appear to escape the general response slowing or “freezing” (McNaughton, & Corr, 2004) caused by threatening stimuli”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McNaughton, & Corr, 2004 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“suggesting that orienting gaze to motivationally-relevant stimuli is largely involuntary in this viewing context.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > Operational definitions of vigilance and maintenance of attention in studies of anxiety
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nummenmaa et al., 2006 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the distal relation between key presses and attention leaves RT measures vulnerable to the confounding effect of emotional information on mediating processes, such as response execution.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“EMs have a more proximal relation to attention than manual key presses.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“this research relies heavily on manual reaction time (RT) measures that cannot fully delineate the time course and components of attentional bias.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the exogenous effect of emotional stimuli on attention appears to persist beyond initial orienting into the initial maintenance of gaze, where it becomes increasingly subject to the attenuating effects of endogenous attentional control.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > Operational definitions of vigilance and maintenance of attention in studies of anxiety
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“overt attention may be a necessary mediator of the effects of covert visual biases in anxiety and depression.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“resulting in a large literature documenting an attentional bias for threat in anxiety disorders (Bar-Haim, Lamy, Pergamin, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2007)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bar-Haim, Lamy, Pergamin, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“some limitations of RT measures are inherent to using key presses as indices of attention, and thus cannot be surpassed without appealing to additional methodologies.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“there is a paucity of research examining the time course of attentional bias in depression (Peckham et al., 2010)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham et al., 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the relation between EMs and covert attention is much closer than that of manual responses and covert attention.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Overt orienting in free viewing tasks appears to reflect exogenous cueing of attention.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > Operational definitions of vigilance and maintenance of attention in studies of anxiety
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Fixation time over extended viewing appears to reflect mostly top-down, endogenous control of attention.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > EM indicators of attentional bias in depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nummenmaa, et al., 2006 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Eye tracking may provide a valuable complement to RT measures, as the methodology is largely unhindered by the inherent limitations of RT measures.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the mere presence of threat does not appear to increase EM latencies in the same manner in which it increases RT latencies.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“eye tracking allows precise observation of multiple components within a single trial”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, it appears that this modest reduction in orienting towards pleasant stimuli is unique to depression.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there was not a sufficient number of studies to allow meta-analysis of maintenance of gaze beyond 2000 ms in anxiety disorders”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Fixation duration in the first 500 ms provides a valid measure of initial orienting”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Garner et al., 2006 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“These indicators have been found to be moderately correlated (rs = .33 to .46, ps < .05; Armstrong et al., 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Armstrong et al., 2010 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“gaze duration in the initial 500 ms has been found to be highly correlated with the direction of initial orienting (rs = .76 to .84, ps < .001; Armstrong et al., 2010)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Armstrong et al., 2010 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, evidence for the maintenance hypothesis was inconsistent.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, in visual search tasks, anxious participants showed a strong tendency to maintain gaze longer on threatening distractors compared to non-anxious participants.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In free viewing tasks, increased initial maintenance of gaze on threat was found only in studies of PTSD.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Computing the between groups effect without this within-subjects baseline (i.e., initial maintenance on neutral stimuli) yielded equivalent results.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the increased perceptual load and/or the greater potential eccentricity of stimuli associated with visual search arrays appeared to eliminate the initial orienting bias that could be observed in smaller arrays associated with free viewing tasks.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“However, this overt orienting bias towards threat may not reflect purely exogenous attentional capture, which would begin pre-attentively, at the earliest stages of sensory processing (Corbetta & Shulman, 2002).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Corbetta & Shulman, 2002 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“The studies reviewed herein cannot rule out the possibility that orienting to threat was endogenous in anxious individuals (see Calvo & Lang, 2005); this would require documenting the bias in the presence of voluntary efforts to inhibit orienting towards threat.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Calvo & Lang, 2005
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unfortunately, the studies reviewed did not report the number and duration of fixations on distractors with enough consistency to fully address this question.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Epoch-related indicators may be too indirect to reliably capture the orienting of gaze, despite two studies finding convergence between event- and epoch-related measures of orienting (Armstrong et al., 2010; Rinck & Becker, 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Such processing has been shown to be capable of guiding EMs on the basis of specific emotional content that goes beyond mere valence (i.e., positive versus negative; Calvo & Nummenmaa, 2007).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Calvo & Nummenmaa, 2007
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The analysis of visual search also suggested that overt orienting to threat in anxiety differs from more prototypical cases of exogenous attentional capture.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The robust orienting bias for threat observed in free viewing studies of anxiety is consistent with models of attentional bias emphasizing facilitated detection of threat through exogenous shifts of attention.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“This is consistent with findings that anxious individuals orient gaze specifically to symptom-related threat as opposed to more generally threatening stimuli (e.g., Armstrong et al., 2011).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Armstrong et al., 2011 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“However, previous research suggests that orienting to an emotional image in this task context is largely unaffected by contrary instructions to look at an accompanying neutral image (Nummenmaa et al., 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nummenmaa et al., 2006 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Further, a study that measured EMs during an emotional spatial cueing task found that anxious individuals involuntarily oriented gaze to threat cues more frequently than non-anxious individuals, despite instructions not to orient gaze to the cues (i.e., instructions to maintain central fixation; Broomfield & Turpin, 2005).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Broomfield & Turpin, 2005
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Becker (2009), for example, found more rapid disengagement from neutral stimuli following the presentation of a threatening stimulus in an unselected sample.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Becker (2009) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The saccade latencies observed in studies of anxiety suggest a brief window of parafoveal processing in which some semantic content could be derived through covert attention.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, differences in the nature of threat encountered in PTSD and spider phobia may help explain this discrepancy.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“This explanation is inline with the distinction between “effectiveness” and “efficiency” posited by ACT (Eysenck et al., 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eysenck et al., 2006
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The critical contextual factor may be whether or not participants are explicitly required to disengage attention from threat.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on spiders in spider phobia may reverse when the urgency of threat increases.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The presence of an orienting bias towards threat in anxiety, but not depression, suggests that vigilance for threat is related to an anxiety specific factor, as opposed to a general factor of internalizing.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Anxious individuals may risk ignoring low urgency danger cues (e.g., an image of a spider) in exchange for the negative reinforcement of anxiety reduction (Mogg & Bradley, 1998).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mogg & Bradley, 1998 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, the presence of reduced orienting towards positive stimuli in depression, but not anxiety, suggests that an anhedonic bias is related to a depression-specific factor, as opposed to a more general risk factor for internalizing disorders, such as negative affect.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Under this scenario, attentional avoidance could still contribute to anxiety disorders by preventing reappraisal and fear extinction of less urgent danger cues (e.g. an innocuous spider in one’s bedroom), which may be encountered more frequently and thus cause greater impairment.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
In the paper
“Interestingly, the spider phobics in Gerdes et al.’s (2008) study showed increased fixations to all distractor types, compared to controls.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gerdes et al.’s (2008) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This distinction may be best observed in the anti-saccade task.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This convergent evidence from EM and RT measures suggests that anxiety and depression have distinct effects on the exogenous capture of attention.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present meta-analytic findings suggest that difficulty disengaging attention from threat in anxiety may only be observed in certain viewing contexts.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this context, there is task incentive to disengage attention from threat that applies evenly to all participants.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present study could not determine if extended viewing biases related to positive stimuli were unique to depression; however, it seems likely that the strong anhedonic bias in extended viewing in depression is also related to low positive affect.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, these biases could have more distal effects on cognitive schemata.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“AsGarner et al. (2006) note, eye tracking experiments may fail to observe increased maintenance of attention on threatening stimuli because the phenomenon could occur covertly, prior to initial fixation.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Garner et al. (2006) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The congruence between attention training away from threat and attentional avoidance in spider phobia may explain why several studies have failed to observe beneficial effects of attention training in this disorder (Harris & Menzies, 1998; Reese, McNally, Najmi, & Amir, 2010; Van Bockstaele et al., 2011).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Harris & Menzies, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Reese, McNally, Najmi, & Amir, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Van Bockstaele et al., 2011 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“On this account, the extended maintenance bias for dysphoric stimuli in depression would relate to a deficit in the updating mechanism of attentional control, which manages the content of working memory (Eysenck et al., 2007).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eysenck et al., 2007 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most notably, attentional resources may be allocated covertly, in the absence of saccadic EMs registered by eye tracking.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present study could not determine if extended viewing biases related to positive stimuli were unique to depression; however, it seems likely that the strong anhedonic bias in extended viewing in depression is also related to low positive affect.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“For example, Ellis, Beevers, and Wells (2011) found that reduced gaze towards positive stimuli in depression led to reduced memory for positive stimuli.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ellis, Beevers, and Wells (2011)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Over time, failing to attend to and remember positive stimuli could cause depressed individuals to view the world as less abundant with rewards (Gotlib & McCan, 1984; Shane & Peterson, 2007).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gotlib & McCan, 1984 source
- Not checked yetcites Shane & Peterson, 2007
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Low positive affect may cause the exogenous system to be insensitive to reward cues, leading to a deficit in orienting towards positive stimuli.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This limitation may have the greatest implications for tests of the maintenance hypothesis.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“The depression-specific factor most commonly cited is low positive affect (e.g., Clark & Watson, 1991), which involves difficulty experiencing pleasure and reduced sensitivity to rewards.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Clark & Watson, 1991 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“This is consistent with ERP research suggesting happy faces are less salient and receive less attention in depressed individuals, as revealed by the P300, an early component reflecting endogenous processing (Cavanagh & Geisler, 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cavanagh & Geisler, 2006
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals exhibit difficulty removing negative content from working memory (Levens & Gotlib, 2010), and this phenomenon has been observed over a 10 s time window (Joorman & Gotlib, 2008) similar to the time window of extended viewing in many of the studies of depression reviewed herein.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Levens & Gotlib, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Joorman & Gotlib, 2008
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Similarly, Fox, Derakshan, and Shoker (2008) found that anxious individuals compared to controls showed an enhanced early N2pc ERP in response to threatening stimuli, a component that reveals covert attention-related activity in the parietal cortex occurring 170–220 ms after stimulus onset.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fox, Derakshan, and Shoker (2008)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Increased retention of dysphoric content in working memory may drive the extended maintenance of attention on dysphoric stimuli, through the same top down influence of working memory on attention that may underlie the lack of dwell on positive stimuli in depression.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Failing to notice or elaborate on positive events could have proximal effects on state affect, depriving depressed individuals of potential pleasure.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This may contrast with the initial maintenance bias in anxiety, which appears to relate to a deficit in the inhibition function, which overrides stimulus-driven effects in attention allocation.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear? Based: unclearA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In free viewing tasks, EMs to threatening stimuli were not completed until roughly 225 ms to 400 ms after stimulus onset (Armstrong et al., 2010; Garner et al., 2006; Mogg et al., 2000), suggesting that increased maintenance of visual attention on threat could occur prior to one’s initial fixation on threat.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The antisaccade task, which has been shown to reveal general inhibitory deficits related to anxiety (Ansari & Derakshan, 2011a) and depression (Lissnyder et al., 2011)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ansari & Derakshan, 2011a
- Not checked yetcites Lissnyder et al., 2011 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“such that a paradigm will likely favor one hypothesis over the other”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“deficits in endogenous attentional control, which have consistently been found in anxiety disorders (e.g., Armstrong, Zald, & Olatunji, 2011)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Armstrong, Zald, & Olatunji, 2011 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Hyperscanning of threat (greater distance between fixations) has been found in social anxiety disorder for threatening faces (Horley et al., 2002, 2004)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Horley et al., 2002, 2004
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“However, these hypotheses are not mutually exclusive (Weierich et al., 2008).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Weierich et al., 2008 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“this fragmented viewing style was found to predict vulnerability to PTSD in response to combat stress (Beevers, Lee, Wells, Ellis, & Telch, 2011)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Beevers, Lee, Wells, Ellis, & Telch, 2011
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a result, some of the analyses in the present study were based on a small number of studies and findings should be interpreted with appropriate caution.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present review firmly established an overt orienting bias as one mechanism of vigilance for threat in anxiety.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIn the paper
“in dysphoria, this pattern of attention for angry faces has been found to increase memory bias for angry faces (Wells, Beevers, Robison, & Ellis, 2010)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wells, Beevers, Robison, & Ellis, 2010
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 56
- Probably not a substantial claim. 33
In the paper
“This bias appears to be specific to threatening stimuli, as anxious individuals did not show an orienting bias towards positive stimuli compared to non-anxious individuals, as would be predicted under the emotionality hypothesis (Calvo & Avero, 2005).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Calvo & Avero, 2005
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present review integrates a total of 33 eye tracking experiments with 1579 participants”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Eye tracking has the potential to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies of individuals meeting diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder found a more robust maintenance bias for dysphoric stimuli in depression (k = 2; g = 1.07, p < .01, CI = .36, 1.80;), compared to studies of individuals meeting a cut-off score for a symptom measure (k = 4; g = .26, p < .06, CI = −.01, .53), Q (1) = 4.40, p < .05.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Extended maintenance of gaze in depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although anxious individuals did not immediately orient to threatening visual search targets, they did fixate on these targets sooner than non-anxious individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas a robust orienting bias towards threat was found in anxiety, no orienting bias towards threat was observed in depression.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although a maintenance bias on threat in anxiety was not consistently observed during free viewing, it was observed for threatening distractors during visual search for non-threatening targets.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This finding is also consistent with Peckham et al.’s (2010) recent review, which found reduced initial attention allocation to positive stimuli in depressed individuals (c.f., Derakshan et al., 2009b).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham et al.’s (2010) source
- Not checked yetcites Derakshan et al., 2009b
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The sustained maintenance of gaze on real spiders found byLange et al. (2004) contrasts with the sustained avoidance of gaze on mere images of spiders found over 3 s (Hermans et al., 1999; Rinck & Becker, 2006), 9 s (Pflugshaupt et al., 2007) and 60 s (Rinck & Becker, 2006) trials.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This finding is consistent with a recent meta-analysis of RT studies of attentional bias in depression, which found no bias for threatening stimuli in depressed compared to non-depressed individuals (Peckham et al., 2010; see also Mogg & Bradley, 2005).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, whereas anxious individuals showed a slight increase in orienting to positive stimuli compared to non-anxious individuals, depressed individuals showed a tendency to orient gaze less to positive stimuli, compared to non-depressed individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals also showed a tendency to maintain gaze on dysphoric stimuli longer than non-depressed individuals during extended viewing (10 to 30 s), and this bias was most pronounced in depressed individuals meeting full diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the present review, the majority of studies examining attentional avoidance measured fixation duration on stimuli as a function of time.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“However, effect sizes were mostly consistent across studies of depression, and the combined effects were largely consistent with RT research on attentional biases in depression (Peckham et al., 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham et al., 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a smaller literature suggesting an attentional bias for dysphoric stimuli and possible neglect of positive stimuli in depression (Peckham, McHugh, & Otto, 2010)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Peckham, McHugh, & Otto, 2010 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the continuous nature of eye tracking provides an important advance in characterizing the time course and components of attentional bias.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas anxiety has been examined with both free viewing and visual search eye tracking paradigms, depression has only been investigated in free viewing eye tracking tasks.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > Using EMs as indicators of attentional bias
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In research on anxiety disorders, it is still unclear to what extent increased processing of threat reflects facilitated orienting toward threat versus difficulty disengaging attention from threat (Weierich, Treat, & Hollingworth, 2008).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Weierich, Treat, & Hollingworth, 2008
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“in naturalistic viewing, EMs are the primary means of attentional selection, with covert attention largely relegated to guiding EMs (Hayhoe & Ballard, 2005; Findlay & Gilchrist, 2003).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hayhoe & Ballard, 2005
- Not checked yetcites Findlay & Gilchrist, 2003
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the components involved in the biases related to dysphoric and positive stimuli remain unclear.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Overview
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, anxious participants showed a marginal tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat compared to non-anxious individuals and this effect was particularly pronounced in spider phobia.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Computing the between groups effect without this within-subjects baseline yielded equivalent results.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present review provides the first meta-analysis of EM biases for emotional stimuli in affective disorders.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, it appears that an overt orienting bias towards threat characterizes anxiety, but not depression.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Results > Vigilance hypothesis: Free viewing tasks
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“An orienting bias for threat in free viewing did not characterize depressed individuals compared to non-depressed individuals, suggesting that vigilance for threat is specific to anxiety (Mogg & Bradley, 2005).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mogg & Bradley, 2005 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the event-related variable was selected, because it provides a more direct measure of initial orienting”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In studies of anxiety, the vigilance hypothesis was supported in both free viewing and visual search tasks: anxious individuals were characterized by an orienting bias towards threat during free viewing and facilitated detection of threat during visual search, compared to non-anxious individuals.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The within-groups effects alone were not interpretable, as the search conditions without threatening stimuli were not always matched for difficulty with the conditions containing distractors (e.g., Miltner et al., 2004).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Methods > Operational definition of vigilance and maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Miltner et al., 2004 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas emotional stimuli can undermine endogenous control in the initial maintenance of gaze, such stimulus-driven effects appear to wane quickly in the later maintenance of gaze (Nummenmaa, et al., 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Advancing theoretical accounts of attentional bias with eye tracking > EM indicators of attentional bias in depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nummenmaa, et al., 2006 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, this effect was based mostly on studies of spider phobic individuals, who showed the strongest tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat in free viewing tasks.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such facilitated overt threat detection in anxiety may still involve an exogenous orienting bias, albeit one that is capacity-limited, and only effective once gaze is directed to a nearby distracter, bringing the threatening stimulus within a range of eccentricity from which it can attract attention under perceptual load.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas an exogenous orienting bias for threatening targets would result in fewer fixations on neutral distractors, facilitated detection of threatening targets could also be achieved through shorter fixations on neutral distractors (c.f. Rinck & Becker, 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rinck & Becker, 2006
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One component of hypervigilance for threat in anxiety may be the ability to rapidly disengage from neutral stimuli during the search for threat, a process that would draw on the endogenous, top-down control of attention.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Threats related to traumatic events (combat: Kimble et al., 2012; physical assault: Felmingham et al., 2011) present greater urgency and danger compared to spiders, and thus may be more difficult to ignore.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kimble et al., 2012
- Not checked yetcites Felmingham et al., 2011 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As Nummenmaa and colleagues (2006) note, reflexive saccades typical of purely exogenous capture (e.g., resulting from the sudden onset of a stimulus with a sharply contrasting basic feature) have a latency of 150 to 175 ms (Rayner, 1998).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nummenmaa and colleagues (2006)
- Not checked yetcites Rayner, 1998 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Gaze avoidance may be particularly strong in spider phobia because spider fearful individuals find spiders disgusting (e.g., Mulkens, de Jong, & Merckelbach, 1996), and may be revolted by the perceptual features of spiders (Royzman & Sabini, 2001).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mulkens, de Jong, & Merckelbach, 1996
- Not checked yetcites Royzman & Sabini, 2001
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In anxious individuals, this so-called ‘panic search’ may be triggered when individuals anticipate the presence of threat.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the present findings leave open the possibility that facilitated threat detection in anxiety also involves more rapid disengagement from neutral stimuli, a process that may rely on endogenous attentional control.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the Vigilance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In a free viewing task, there is no task incentive to disengage attention from threat, yet there may be an affective incentive, as threat stimuli arouse anxiety or fear.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, an alternative explanation is that anxious individuals decide whether or not to sustain attention on threat according to a cost-benefit analysis.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
In the paper
“Inhibitory control deficits related to anxiety (Eysenck et al., 2007) may be more threat-specific in the engagement of attention compared to the shifting of attention because more information is available once a stimulus is engaged, reducing ‘false alarms.’”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eysenck et al., 2007 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This finding is consistent with RT research suggesting that when spider phobics anticipate the possibility of a spider distractor, the stimulus-driven system becomes dominant, leading to increased exogenous shifting to all distractors (Devue, Belopolsky, & Theeuwes, 2011).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Devue, Belopolsky, & Theeuwes, 2011
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, these individuals may feel compelled to continue monitoring more urgent danger cues (e.g., a live tarantula in a nearby box) at the cost of increased anxiety.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anxiety appears to increase the exogenous system’s sensitivity to threatening stimuli, whereas depression appears to decrease the system’s sensitivity to positive stimuli.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas spider fearful individuals may learn to cope with the presence of spiders by looking elsewhere, individuals with PTSD may perceive the need to maintain attention on trauma cues to avoid immediate harm.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although this finding could reflect more frequent shifting of gaze to threatening distractors (Miltner et al., 2008), rather than difficulty disengaging gaze from these distractors (Rinck & Becker, 2006), Gerdes, Alpers, and Pauli (2008) found that spider phobics were slower to detect a neutral target due to longer fixations rather than more frequent fixations on a spider distractor, suggesting”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gerdes, Alpers, and Pauli (2008)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In tripartite structural theories of internalizing disorders (e.g., Clark & Watson, 1991), the development of anxiety and depression can be understood in terms of a general factor (e.g., negative affect or neuroticism) that confers risk for both disorders, as well as disorder-specific factors, such as anxious arousal or low positive affect, which specifically confer risk for anxiety or depression,”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Clark & Watson, 1991 source
- Not checked yetcites Oehlberg, Revelle, & Mineka, 2011
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Derakshan, Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, and Eysenck (2009) found that anxious individuals were able to execute saccades away from a threatening face as effectively as non-anxious individuals (i.e., with similar error rates); however, their correct saccades away from threatening faces had longer latencies, suggesting less efficiency disengaging covert attention from threatening faces in order to”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Derakshan, Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, and Eysenck (2009)
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As Berggren and Derakshan (in press) explain, anxious individuals may be able to disengage attention as effectively as non-anxious individuals in certain contexts, but such disengagement is less efficient, as anxious individuals apply more effort in order to compensate for attentional control deficits.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Berggren and Derakshan (in press)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This additional effort may compensate for, and thus conceal, difficulty disengaging attention from threat in anxious individuals (Ansari & Derakshan, 2011b), reducing the sensitivity of free viewing tasks in detecting this bias.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ansari & Derakshan, 2011b
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Given that anxious individuals rate threatening stimuli as more unpleasant (e.g., Rinck & Becker, 2006), and have been observed to voluntarily terminate exposure to threatening images sooner compared to non-anxious individuals (Tolin, Lohr, Lee, & Sawchuk, 1999), it follows that anxious individuals have a greater affective incentive to disengage attention from threat, and may exert more effort”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Implications for the maintenance hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rinck & Becker, 2006
- Not checked yetcites Tolin, Lohr, Lee, & Sawchuk, 1999
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, training attention over longer viewing windows (e.g., 3 s, 4.5 s; Wells & Beevers, 2010) appears to be more effective at modifying attentional bias in depression and reducing symptoms of depression, compared to training over a shorter viewing period (1.5 s; Baert, De Raedt, Schacht, & Koster, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wells & Beevers, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Baert, De Raedt, Schacht, & Koster, 2010 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A positivity bias appears to promote resilience (see Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2011), and initial evidence suggests that biases for positive stimuli can be induced through training and may have beneficial effects (Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2008).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2011 source
- Not checked yetcites Wadlinger & Isaacowitz, 2008
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These authors cite Fox et al.’s (2001) spatial cueing study, which found greater difficulty disengaging covert attention from incongruent threat cues presented at 100 ms or 250 ms SOAs in anxious individuals compared to controls.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fox et al.’s (2001) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Concerns have been raised about training attention away from threat in anxiety, as it could engender attentional avoidance of threat, which is believed to impair emotional processing and maintain anxiety (Koster, Baert, Bockstaele, & De Raedt, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Koster, Baert, Bockstaele, & De Raedt, 2010
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Indeed, Koster et al., (2010) found that training attention away from threat did not affect vigilance for threat in the modified dot probe (100 ms SOA); however, it did lead to later avoidance of threat (1500 ms SOA), a bias similar to that observed in spider phobia in the present meta-analysis.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Koster et al., (2010) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Deldin, Deveney, Kim, Casas, and Best (2001) found that individuals with major depressive disorder show a reduced slow wave (SW) component while maintaining positive adjectives in working memory, compared to controls.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Deldin, Deveney, Kim, Casas, and Best (2001)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals may voluntarily maintain gaze less on positive stimuli because they are less sensitive to the intrinsic pleasantness of the stimuli, reducing their incentive to maintain gaze.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Currently, it is unclear to what extent individuals make EMs during attention training.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recently there have been a number of studies demonstrating that training attention away from threat leads to functional improvement in anxiety (Hallion & Ruscio, 2011), and one study suggests an analogous effect related to dysphoric stimuli in depression (Wells & Beevers, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hallion & Ruscio, 2011 source
- Not checked yetcites Wells & Beevers, 2010
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the unweighted version of the dot probe (which is used as a control condition in training studies), EMs to either cue have been found to occur on 30% of trials overall; some individuals make EMs on more than half of trials, whereas others hardly make any EMs (Bradley, Mogg, & Millar, 2000).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Clinical implications: Eye tracking and attention modification procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bradley, Mogg, & Millar, 2000
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If an attentional bias towards dysphoric content in depression indeed requires the maintenance of negative content in working memory, it could explain why an initial orienting bias towards dysphoric content in depression was not found, as such a bias would operate before negative content begins to “stick” in working memory.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Behavioral research has also found that depression is characterized by decreased maintenance of positive stimuli in working memory relative to controls (Levens & Gotlib, 2010).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Gaze biases in anxiety compared to depression
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Levens & Gotlib, 2010
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, if the maintenance bias in anxiety were limited to covert attention in the first 250 ms of stimulus processing, it would call into question the functional significance of the bias.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were also a small number of studies in the analysis of visual search tasks (k = 5), and these studies consisted almost entirely of studies of spider phobias (k = 4), raising concern about the generalizability of the present findings to other anxiety disorders.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Likewise, shorter fixations on threat, but not increased overall dwell time, has been found in contamination fear (Armstrong et al., 2012)”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Armstrong et al., 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the analysis of vigilance for threat in visual search tasks, the absence of an initial orienting bias for threat in anxiety suggests that such boundary conditions are present, and likely depend on one of these factors or their interaction (Acunzo & Henderson, 2011).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Acunzo & Henderson, 2011
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“attentional avoidance could be achieved by rapid disengagement from threat or by maintenance of gaze at a distant location”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another limitation of extant research is that few studies examined attention to threat beyond three seconds of exposure, and many studies employed even shorter trials.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Basic research suggests that the ability of threatening stimuli to capture gaze is affected by how many competing stimuli are present (perceptual load; Yates et al., 2010) and how far into the periphery stimuli are presented (eccentricity; Calvo, Nummenmaa, & Hyönä, 2006).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yates et al., 2010 source
- Not checked yetcites Calvo, Nummenmaa, & Hyönä, 2006
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“facilitated detection of threat (i.e., vigilance) could derive from an orienting bias for threat or from rapid disengagement from neutral distractors”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pflugshaupte et al. (2005) embedded spiders in images of household scenes and found evidence of avoidance in the distance between a fixation’s coordinates and the nearest spider; further, they examined this relationship as a function of the ordinal number of the fixation”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pflugshaupte et al. (2005)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Sears et al. (2010) found that depressed individuals were slower initiating saccades away from dysphoric images, but not other image types (i.e., threatening, pleasant, neutral) compared to non-depressed individuals, a maintenance bias that was not revealed in a free viewing condition of their study.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sears et al. (2010) source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, free viewing studies may fail to observe increased maintenance of attention on threat because the phenomenon occurs early in the covert deployment of attention, and thus eludes EM data.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present meta-analytic findings suggest that increased maintenance of gaze on threat in anxiety is best observed in a task in which all participants are explicitly required to disengage attention from threat.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, the boundary conditions of increased orienting to threat in anxiety have not been clearly outlined.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the analyses of initial orienting towards threat (k = 20) and maintenance of attention on threat (k = 16) in anxiety drew on a moderate number of studies, there were far fewer studies in the analysis of orienting towards threatening (k = 4) and positive stimuli in depression (k = 6), as well as in the analysis of extended maintenance of gaze in depression (k = 6).”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, a more thorough investigation of the time course of attentional bias for threat—one of the chief promises of eye tracking methodology— could not be fully realized in the present analysis.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“increased attention on dysphoric stimuli (i.e., maintenance) could occur through voluntary or involuntary attentional engagement”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“an over-reliance on broad constructs, such as vigilance, maintenance, or avoidance in the interpretation of EM data has the potential to obscure underlying attentional mechanisms.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An over-reliance on broad attentional constructs can also stifle the discovery and exploration of novel gaze biases.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, attentional avoidance may also be seen in the distance between a fixation point and the nearest threatening stimulus.”
§ Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis > Discussion > Future Directions
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
Eye tracking has the potential to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases.
“Given the potential of eye tracking to address enduring questions in research on attentional biases, a meta-analysis was conducted on the extant literature.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.
“Threatening stimuli, as danger cues, likely occur on a continuum of urgency.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat.
“In free viewing tasks, participants are not required to resist orienting to threat”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“and there is strong evidence supporting the use of eye-tracking technology in the study of attentional biases in affective disorders.62”
From Effectiveness of a projection-based augmented reality exposure system in treating cockroach phobia: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial (2023) · cites this paper as [62]
In the citing paper
“Empirical research indicates several manifestations of anxiety-related ABs, which are commonly uncorrelated [6,18,25,53].”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“ABs in attentionorienting are observed on spatial attention tasks (e.g., visual probe and eye-tracking tasks), and include initial orienting towards threat, maintaining attention on threat (also known as delayed disengagement), and orienting away from threat [6,25,29,53,54].”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“Attention maintenance on threat and poor threat-distractor inhibition may exacerbate anxiety-related thoughts and worries.”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“Threat-avoidant orienting may reduce immediate distress, but be maladaptive in the long term by impairing reason-based appraisal of feared stimuli, thereby impeding habituation and fear reduction.”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“automatic orienting to threat may increase detection of threat cues in the environment and awareness of potential danger, thereby enhancing anxious mood.”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“AB assessment methods include visual probe, spatial cueing, modified Stroop, flanker, and visual search tasks [6,7,12,19,35,53-55,86,98-100].”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“Much evidence of anxiety-related ABs in spatial orienting to threat has come from visual-probe task and eye-tracking studies (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012;Bar-Haim et al., 2007).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012
In the citing paper
“Evidence from eye-tracking and visual-probe studies suggests that while anxiety relates to increased initial orienting to threat, depression relates more to maintaining spatial attention on negative information (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012;Caseras, Garner, Bradley, & Mogg, 2007;Gotlib & Jormann, 2010;Mogg & Bradley, 2005;Mogg, Millar, & Bradley, 2000).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012
In the citing paper
“Meta-analytic findings from free-viewing studies indicate a bias in initial orienting towards threat, but not in maintenance of gaze on threat in anxiety (Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as Armstrong & Olatunji, 2012
In the citing paper
“Attention bias modification treatment (ABMT) for anxiety disorders grew out of data on threat-related attentional biases in anxiety.[1,2]”
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Inconsistent p-value across alpha = .05: Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05
MajorThe paper reports p < .05 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .338. The two fall on opposite sides of alpha = .05. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .338
“Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05”
Inconsistent p-value: Q (5) = .66, p = .97
MinorThe paper reports p = .97 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .985. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .97 · recomputed p = .985
“Q (5) = .66, p = .97”
Inconsistent p-value: Q (3) = .55, p = .95
MinorThe paper reports p = .95 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .908. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .95 · recomputed p = .908
“Q (3) = .55, p = .95”
Inconsistent p-value: Q (5) = 4.75, p = .55
MinorThe paper reports p = .55 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .447. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .55 · recomputed p = .447
“Q (5) = 4.75, p = .55”
Inconsistent p-value: Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05
MinorThe paper reports p = .05 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .060. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .060
“Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05”
Inconsistent p-value: Q (2) = .05, p = .79
MinorThe paper reports p = .79 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .975. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .79 · recomputed p = .975
“Q (2) = .05, p = .79”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upQ(4) = 4.54reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .338The two fall on opposite sides of .05
“Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05”
- Doesn’t add upQ(3) = 0.55reported p = .95 · recomputed p = .908
“Q (3) = .55, p = .95”
- Doesn’t add upQ(5) = 4.75reported p = .55 · recomputed p = .447
“Q (5) = 4.75, p = .55”
- Doesn’t add upQ(1) = 3.54reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .060
“Q (1) = 3.54, p = .05”
- Doesn’t add upQ(2) = 0.05reported p = .79 · recomputed p = .975
“Q (2) = .05, p = .79”
- Doesn’t add upQ(5) = 0.66reported p = .97 · recomputed p = .985
“Q (5) = .66, p = .97”
- ConsistentQ(19) = 47.09reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (19) = 47.09, p < .001”
- ConsistentQ(10) = 17.66reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .061
“Q (10) = 17.66, p = .06”
- ConsistentQ(1) = 6.72reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010
“Q (1) = 6.72, p = .01”
- ConsistentQ(5) = 8.78reported p = .12 · recomputed p = .118
“Q (5) = 8.78, p = .12”
- ConsistentQ(15) = 58.08reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (15) = 58.08, p < .001”
- ConsistentQ(4) = 24.13reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (4) = 24.13, p < .001”
- ConsistentQ(4) = 23.45reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q (4) = 23.45, p < .001”
- ConsistentQ(1) = 0.1reported p = .76 · recomputed p = .752
“Q (1) = .10, p = .76”
- ConsistentQ(5) = 1.9reported p = .86 · recomputed p = .863
“Q (5) = 1.9, p = .86”
- ConsistentQ(5) = 9.77reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .082
“Q (5) = 9.77, p = .08”
- ConsistentQ(1) = 4.4reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .036
“Q (1) = 4.40, p < .05”
- ConsistentQ(3) = 10.89reported p < .02 · recomputed p = .012
“Q (3) = 10.89, p < .02”
- ConsistentQ(4) = 8.28reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .082
“Q (4) = 8.28, p = .08”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Incorrect heterogeneity degrees of freedom for social anxiety studies
MinorA heterogeneity Q test across seven studies has k − 1 = 6 degrees of freedom, not the reported 4.
Reported 4 · recomputed 6
“social anxiety (k = 7; g = .05, p = .83, CI = −.42, .53; Q (4) = 23.45, p < .001, I2 = 74.41)”
Discussion calls a nonsignificant overall result marginal
MinorThe discussion describes an overall marginal tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat, but the results state that the overall group difference was not significant (p = .26).
“Overall, anxious participants showed a marginal tendency to avoid maintaining gaze on threat compared to non-anxious individuals”
“Anxious individuals did not differ overall in their initial maintenance of gaze on threat compared to non-anxious individuals (k = 16; g = −.17, p = .26, CI = −.47, .13; Figure 4).”
PTSD confidence interval is inconsistent with its effect size
MinorThe two reported confidence limits have a midpoint of −.60 and do not contain the reported effect size of +.60.
Reported 0.6 · recomputed -0.6
“Studies of PTSD found marginally significant increased maintenance of gaze in anxious relative to non-anxious participants (k = 2; g = .60, p = .05, CI = .01, −1.21”
Incorrect heterogeneity degrees of freedom for OCD studies
MinorA heterogeneity Q test across two studies has k − 1 = 1 degree of freedom, not the reported 4.
Reported 4 · recomputed 1
“Studies of contamination-based OCD (k = 2; g = −.24, p = .60, CI = −1.1, .66; Q (4) = 4.54, p < .05, I2 = 77.98)”
Dysphoric-orienting confidence interval is not centered on its effect size
MinorThe reported confidence limits have a midpoint of .045, not the reported Hedges's g of .18. This difference exceeds rounding to the printed precision.
Reported 0.18 · recomputed 0.045
“the combined effect size was not significant (k = 6; g = .18, p = .27, CI = −.18, .27”
Conflicting counts of orienting-variable types
MinorThe methods count 17 event-related and 3 epoch-related vigilance analyses, while the results count 16 and 4, respectively, for the 20-study anxiety orienting analysis.
“For event-related analyses of vigilance (k = 17), variables indicating how frequently threatening stimuli captured initial fixations were collected. For epoch-related analyses of vigilance (k = 3), variables indicating total fixation time on threatening stimuli within the first 500 ms were collected.”
“The combined effect size was larger in studies reporting an event-related orienting variable (k = 16, g = .58, CI = .33, .83, p < .001) compared to studies only reporting an epoch-related orienting variable (k = 4, g = .12, CI = −.27, .51, p = .19).”
Citations
Cites
Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
Muller, K. E., & Cohen, J. (1989) · Technometrics · doi:10.2307/1270020 · Cited by 99,603
Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,417
Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.).
Lachenbruch, P. A., & Cohen, J. (1989) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2290095 · Cited by 37,421
Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis
Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2002) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1186 · Cited by 36,763 · cited 2×
“…that variance in effect sizes around the combined effect size cannot be completely accounted for by sampling error; the I2 statistic estimates the percentage of this variance that is due to between-studies variability (25%=low, 50%=medium, and 75%=high heterogeneity; Higgins & Thompson, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodConducting Meta-Analyses in R with the metafor Package
Viechtbauer, W. (2010) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v036.i03 · Cited by 20,464 · cited 1×
“Forest plots were generated using the metafor package for R statistical software (Viechtbauer, 2010).”
MethodControl of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain
Corbetta, M., & Shulman, G. L. (2002) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn755 · Cited by 12,881 · cited 3×
“The stimulus-driven system responds to unattended, motivationally-relevant events, enabling their detection through automatic shifts in attention (Corbetta & Shulman, 2002).”
BackgroundWasserman, S. S., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1988) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164953 · Cited by 10,377
LeDoux, J. E. (2000) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.155 · Cited by 8,444
The attention system of the human brain
Posner, M. I., & Petersen, S. E. (1990) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325 · Cited by 8,070 · cited 2×
“An abundance of behavioral and neuropsychological research suggests a fundamental distinction between a stimulus-driven system and a goal-directed system in the control of attention (Corbetta & Shulman, 2002; Posner & Peterson, 1990).”
BackgroundEye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research
Rayner, K. (1998) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372 · Cited by 7,979 · cited 1×
“, resulting from the sudden onset of a stimulus with a sharply contrasting basic feature) have a latency of 150 to 175 ms (Rayner, 1998).”
Background
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Poverty, depression, and anxiety: Causal evidence and mechanisms
Ridley, M., Rao, G., Schilbach, F., & Patel, V. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aay0214 · Cited by 1,220
Depression: A cognitive perspective
LeMoult, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2018.06.008 · Cited by 792
Best practices in eye tracking research
Carter, B. T., & Luke, S. G. (2020) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.05.010 · Cited by 659
The Status of Irritability in Psychiatry: A Conceptual and Quantitative Review
Vidal‐Ribas, P., Brotman, M. A., Valdivieso, I., Leibenluft, E., & Stringaris, A. K. (2016) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.04.014 · Cited by 493
“The bias toward threatening faces is not unique to SMD but is also present in people with depression and anxiety.(87,88) Finally, compared with HV, youth with SMD have deficits in reversal learning,(89) performing even worse than youth with BD when attentional demands increase.”
ResultMeasuring attentional bias to threat: reliability of dot probe and eye movement indices
Waechter, S., Nelson, A. L., Wright, C., Hyatt, A., & Oakman, J. (2014) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-013-9588-2 · Cited by 324
“In the existing literature, eye movement studies use different indices to measure attention to threat (see Armstrong and Olatunji 2012 and Cisler et al. 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Armstrong, Thomas
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-12
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 704-723
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3556338
- OpenAlex
- W2104609554
- Cited by
- 1,049
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 71 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 105 · 2020: 148 · 2019: 92 · 2018: 84 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 5.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (F31MH087018)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Visual Attention and Saliency Detection
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- eye tracking, attentional bias, mood disorders, anxiety, depression, threat vigilance, visual search, free viewing, emotional stimuli
- MeSH terms
- Anxiety Disorders, Arousal, Attention, Depressive Disorder, Emotions, Eye Movements, Facial Expression, Fixation, Ocular, Humans, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Reaction Time
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
