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Beyond linear mediation: Toward a dynamic network approach to study treatment processes
Open accessAbstract
Few clinical scientists would disagree that more research is needed on the underlying mechanisms and processes of change in psychological therapies. In the dominant current approach, processes of change are studied through mediation. The study of mediation has been largely structured around a distinction between moderation and mediation first popularized by Baron and Kenny's (1986) seminal article, which is based on a nomothetic and cross-sectional framework. In this article, we argue that this approach is unable to adequately address change processes in psychological therapies, because it falsely assumes that treatment change is a linear, unidirectional, pauci-variate process and that the statistical assumptions are met to study processes of change in an individual using a nomothetic approach. In contrast, we propose that treatment is a dynamic process involving numerous variables that may form bi-directional and complex relationships that differ between individuals. Such relationships can best be studied using an individual dynamic network approach connected to nomothetic generalization methods that are based on a firm idiographic foundation. We argue that our proposal is available, viable, and can readily be integrated into existing research strategies. We further argue that adopting an individual dynamic network approach combined with experimental analyses will accelerate the study of treatment change processes, which is necessary as the field of evidence-based care moves toward a process-based model. We encourage future research to gather empirical evidence to examine this approach.
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“Modeling downstream mechanisms will likely require complex approaches such as network analytic frameworks”
From Measuring the active elements of cognitive-behavioral therapies (2023) · cites this paper as Hofmann et al., 2020
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“The second important component of PBT is the personalization of treatment based on (a) information about the individual network of the problem and (b) matching interventions based on their effective components to the central node of the network [10].”
From Process-based therapy vs. routine-CBT for difficult-to-treat mood and anxiety disorders: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [10]
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“both outcomes and processes of therapeutic change are likely to be different from person to person (Hofmann et al., 2020;Vlaeyen et al., 2020).”
From Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for women living with Vulvodynia: A single-case experimental design study of a treatment delivered online (2022) · cites this paper as Hofmann et al., 2020
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“Linear mediation models, as employed in our study, may not be suitable to capture the complexity of therapeutic processes”
From Transdiagnostic Processes as Mediators of Change in an Internet-Delivered Intervention Based on the Unified Protocol (2022) · cites this paper as Hofmann et al., 2020
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“the relationship between outcome and mediator are dynamic, bidirectional, and non-linear (Hofmann etal., 2020)”
From Transdiagnostic Processes as Mediators of Change in an Internet-Delivered Intervention Based on the Unified Protocol (2022) · cites this paper as Hofmann et al., 2020
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“If only studies of mediation within randomized controlled trials are examined, more than 1,000 significant findings can be identified, encompassing more than 100 processes of change 71 .”
From “Third-wave” cognitive and behavioral therapies and the emergence of a process-based approach to intervention in psychiatry (2021) · cites this paper as [71]
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“Mediators often form bi-directional and complex relationships that differ between individuals (Hofmann, Curtiss, & Hayes, 2020).”
From A process-based approach to psychological diagnosis and treatment:The conceptual and treatment utility of an extended evolutionary meta model (2020) · cites this paper as Hofmann, Curtiss, & Hayes, 2020
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“A similar lack of progress has been noted for behavioural markers in guiding and individualizing behavioural treatments such as psychotherapy.33”
From Precision clinical trials: a framework for getting to precision medicine for neurobehavioural disorders (2021) · cites this paper as [33]
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“However, neurobehavioural treatment response may not obey a dose–response curve; it could evolve in complex, nonlinear ways both acutely and in the longer term, as patients’ needs, preferences, psychosocial context and neurobiology change over time.33”
From Precision clinical trials: a framework for getting to precision medicine for neurobehavioural disorders (2021) · cites this paper as [33]
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“New statistical methods allow researchers to model the temporal dynamics of illness at an individual level.33,48,49”
From Precision clinical trials: a framework for getting to precision medicine for neurobehavioural disorders (2021) · cites this paper as [33]
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“This has had the effect of narrowing the available empirical literature on applied functional analysis largely to developmental disorders, in which direct active contingency principles can be sufficient to understand the target behavior in children with developmental problems (Friman, 2010).”
BackgroundTreatment development: can we find a better way?
Hayes, S. C., Long, D. M., Levin, M. E., & Follette, W. C. (2013) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.009 · Cited by 75
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Pattern destabilization and emotional processing in cognitive therapy for personality disorders
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“This definition is consistent with the notion that therapy includes learning processes that, together with therapeutic procedures, form the mechanisms of change of a certain treatment (Bruijniks et al., 2019).”
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Functional alternatives to traditional assessment and diagnosis.
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Differential Treatment Mechanisms in Mindfulness Meditation and Progressive Muscle Relaxation
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Self-citationA Primer on Functional Analysis
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“A functional analysis isolates specific variables that cause or maintain a behavior of interest by identifying the antecedents and consequences of the behavior (Yoman, 2008).”
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“Impulse response functions (IRF) can investigate how one node influences other nodes in the network by simulating a sudden increase (or ‘shock’) in that particular node (Bos et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSingle-case experimental research designs.
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“…treatment processes that underlie effective interventions, it seems necessary to move away from traditional nomothetic approaches that emphasize average group differences derived from large samples of individuals and move toward idiographic approaches (Kazdin, 2016; Barlow, Nock, & Hersen, 2009).”
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MethodTesting for Granger Causality in the Frequency Domain: A Phase Resampling Method
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“The single biggest implication is this: standard statistical analysis techniques based on inter-individual variation cannot properly model a developmental or change processes (Molenaar, 2008a).”
BackgroundFunctional Analysis Is Dead: Long Live Functional Analysis
Hofmann, S. G., & Hayes, S. C. (2018) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702618805513 · Cited by 27
Self-citationErgodic properties of an ideal gas with an infinite number of degrees of freedom
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BackgroundToward the delineation of therapeutic change principles
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Personalized advice for enhancing well-being using automated impulse response analysis --- AIRAPreprint
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“Of the many aspects of a network that can be examined using IRFs, questions can be addressed regarding how many time windows one node is influenced by another node after a simulated shock (Blaauw et al., 2017).”
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Rediscovering the Individual in Mediation Analyses
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“Although there have been calls to study mediation idiographically (e.g., Faldowski, 2009), to date little research has been done to study evidence-based processes of change using idiographic methods.”
Background
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Hayes, 2020, Creating an alternative to syndromal diagnosis: Needed features of processes of change and the models that organize them. Chapter to appear in
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Sorted by citations
Hayes, S. C., & Hofmann, S. G. (2021) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20884 · Cited by 260
Self-citationHayes, S. C., Ciarrochi, J., Hofmann, S. G., Chin, F., & Sahdra, B. (2022) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2022.104155 · Cited by 234
Self-citationHayes, S. C., Hofmann, S. G., & Ciarrochi, J. (2020) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101908 · Cited by 227
Self-citationPutting the “mental” back in “mental disorders”: a perspective from research on fear and anxiety
Taschereau‐Dumouchel, V., Michel, M., Lau, H. C., Hofmann, S. G., & LeDoux, J. E. (2022) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01395-5 · Cited by 200
Self-citationStudying Behaviour Change Mechanisms under Complexity
Heino, M. T. J., Knittle, K. P., Noone, C., Hasselman, F., & Hankonen, N. E. (2021) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs11050077 · Cited by 161
“Of particular importance to human behaviour change, however, is that the accuracy of mediation analysis depends on four key assumptions [13]: (1) The number of variables involved is small, and dynamics can be meaningfully assessed with only a few time points; (2) The process of change is the same for all individuals,…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Hofmann, S. G., Curtiss, J. E., & Hayes, S. C.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- University of Nevada, Reno (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hofmann, Stefan G.
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-03
- Volume
- 76
- Pages
- 101824
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7137783
- OpenAlex
- W3000381339
- Cited by
- 232
- References
- 110
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 52 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 18
- FWCI
- 2.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Keywords
- treatment process, psychotherapy, mediation analysis, moderation, dynamic network model, individual differences, idiographic approach, mechanistic model, evidence-based care, mechanisms of change
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Psychotherapy
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