Towards the lithium-ion battery production network: Thinking beyond mineral supply chains

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

IBC will invest in nickel mines, smelters, and associated upstream industries, and act as a major (51%) shareholder in the upstream EV battery sector.

“IBC will invest in nickel mines, smelters, and associated upstream industries, and act as a major (51%) shareholder in the upstream EV battery sector.”

May combine two claims.

As Tesla has harnessed its manufacturing joint venture with Panasonic to enter the energy storage market, Panasonic has sought to reduce its dependence on Tesla as customer and diversify to other car manufacturers.

“As Tesla has harnessed its manufacturing joint venture with Panasonic to enter the energy storage market, so Panasonic has sought to reduce its dependence on Tesla as customer and diversify to other car manufacturers [185].”

• cites [185]Not checked yet

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The quote only partly states this claim.

Battery manufacturers in the LiB GPN can be categorized into two broad groups: established battery producers and emerging battery producers.

“Battery manufacturers in the LiB GPN can be categorized into two broad groups.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

These new industrial project developer projects emerge with the support of public-private funding, such as that promoted by the European Battery Alliance in which EU member state budgets are channelled towards Important Projects of Common European Interest (IPCEI).

“These projects emerge with the support of public-private funding, such as that promoted by the European Battery Alliance in which EU member state budgets are channelled towards Important Projects of Common European Interest (IPCEI).”

May combine two claims.

These projects offer a product portfolio featuring multiple cell formats and targeting a range of OEM manufacturers within and beyond EVs, including heavy duty mining and construction, aviation and ESS.

“They also offer a product portfolio featuring multiple cell formats (e.g.pouch, cylindrical and prismatic) and targeting a range of OEM manufacturers within and beyond EVs, including heavy duty mining and construction, aviation (see Northvolt, Freyr) and ESS.”

May combine two claims.

Panasonic invested in Tesla when it went public in 2010, and the two companies entered into a US$5 billion gigafactory joint venture in 2014 to manufacture and supply NCA cells.

“Panasonic invested in Tesla when it went public in 2010, and the two companies entered into a US$ 5 billion gigafactory joint venture in 2014 to manufacture and supply NCA cells [182,183].”

• cites [182]Not checked yet

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• cites [183]Not checked yet

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In the case of Panasonic, LG, Samsung and CATL, LiB manufacturing developed initially through the lead position of these firms in consumer electronics, and over time it has become a specialised business division of these firms.

“In the case of Panasonic, LG, Samsung and CATL, LiB manufacturing developed initially through the lead position of these firms in consumer electronics, and over time it has become a specialised business division of these firms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Panasonic was a commercial pioneer of LiB technology in portable electronics and an early entrant to the EV market.

“Panasonic was a commercial pioneer of LiB technology in portable electronics and an early entrant to the EV market: a 1996 agreement saw the company supply lithium-ion and nickel-metal hydride batteries to Toyota, including the company's flagship Prius [181].”

• cites [181]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Finland is building on its existing mining industry as both the largest nickel producer in the EU and the only EU member state with industrial scale cobalt production.

“In a similar way Finland is building on its existing mining industry (Terrafame, Keliber) as both the largest nickel producer in the EU and the only EU member state with industrial scale cobalt production [197].”

• cites [197] sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Across both categories of battery manufacturers, automakers are increasingly acting as lead firms in battery production, with the investment strategies of automakers driving production location, battery chemistry and rate of production, and co-ordinating network organisation.

“Across both these broad categories of battery manufacturers we find automakers increasingly acting as lead firms in battery production, with the investment strategies of automakers driving production location, battery chemistry and rate of production, and co-ordinating network organisation (Table 4).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

For the Tesla-Panasonic joint venture, Nevada provided tax exemptions and reduced energy costs along with highway development.

“For the Tesla-Panasonic joint venture, for example, Nevada provided tax exemptions and reduced energy costs along with highway development.”

May combine two claims.

BYD's early development in the late 1990s focused on specialised rechargeable battery technology, growing to supply half the world's mobile phone batteries, and it subsequently built on this expertise to develop a lead role in downstream transport applications of battery technology.

“BYD's route, by contrast, is somewhat the reverse as its early development in the late 1990s focused on specialised rechargeable battery technology (to substitute Japanese imports), growing to supply half the world's mobile phone batteries.It has subsequently built on this specialist manufacturing expertise to develop a lead role in downstream transport applications of battery technology.”

May combine two claims.

Indonesia banned nickel ore exports in early 2020, and acquired shares in mineral-material production with the long-term aim of EV production.

“Indonesia, for example, banned nickel ore exports in early 2020, and acquired shares in mineral-material production with the long-term aim of EV production.”

May combine two claims.

Organisationally, the integration of automotive OEMs and battery producers is taking several different forms, including long term contracts, direct investment by automakers in battery production without a joint venture partner, and joint ventures based on shared investment.

“Organisationally this is taking several different forms (Table 4), including long term contracts between automotive OEMs and battery cell producers to secure access to battery cells; direct investment by automanufacturers in battery production without a joint venture partner; and joint ventures based on shared investment by automotive OEMs and battery cell producers to pool and manage risk.”

May combine two claims.

The second group of emerging battery producers consists of (i) joint ventures between automotive OEMs and established battery producers, (ii) current Tier-2 battery suppliers to automotive OEMs, and (iii) a 'start-up' group of industrial project developers developing new gigafactory production in advance of anticipated demand.

“The second is a more diverse group of emerging battery producers (Table 4).This group consists of (i) joint ventures, into which automotive OEMs are entering with established battery producers, primarily through agreements around cell and battery development (and often as an evolution of previous agreements around battery assembly).30 Examples include Toyota with Panasonic (Prime Planet Energy and”

May combine two claims.

A consortium of four state-owned firms-the Indonesia Battery Corporation (IBC)-has been established to guide co-operation between battery developers and investors, following LG's announcement of developing an integrated battery industry in Indonesia.

“A consortium of four state-owned firms -the Indonesia Battery Corporation (IBC) -has been established to guide co-operation between battery developers and investors, following LG's announcement of developing an integrated battery industry in Indonesia.”

May combine two claims.

Acting increasingly like a battery manufacturer, Tesla has scaled up its battery sales and installed grid-scale ESS systems in Puerto Rico, California, Texas and Australia.

“Acting increasingly like a battery manufacturer, Tesla has scaled up its battery sales and installed grid-scale ESS systems in Puerto Rico, California, Texas 37 and Australia where, in collaboration with a French renewable power company (Neoen), Tesla constructed the 100 MW Hornsdale Power Reserve (South Australia) and the 300 MW Victorian Big Battery at Moorabool [184].”

• cites [184]Not checked yet

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Northvolt's in-house production plans range upstream to active material production (including some prior metal chemical production) and downstream to recycling; Verkor's in-house production plans extend upstream to electrode and cell assembly.

“Northvolt, for example, has in-house production plans that range upstream to active material production (including some prior metal chemical production) and downstream to recycling, while Verkor's inhouse production plans extend upstream to electrode and cell assembly.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

States and municipalities are reviewing public transport infrastructure for electrification, with the state in some instances becoming a 'buyer' of electric buses.

“Also, states and municipalities are reviewing public transport infrastructure for electrification, with the state in some instances becoming a 'buyer' of electric buses.”

May combine two claims.

Local content requirements currently allow up to 70% of the value of the car to be sourced from outside the EU; from January 2024 this will reduce to 50%, and as batteries can be up to 40% of the final value of the car, this will effectively require automakers to source batteries from within the EU.

“These specify a level of local content, measured as a percentage of the final value of the vehicle, and currently allow up to 70% of the value of the car to be sourced from outside the EU.From January 2024, however, this will reduce to 50% andas batteries can be up to 40% of the final value of the carthis will effectively require automakers to source batteries from within the EU.”

May combine two claims.

Nio has signed a strategic collaboration with Sinopec to build a network of 5000 charging and swapping stations for EV batteries, with the first opening in Beijing in 2021.

“To facilitate these ambitions, Nio has signed a strategic collaboration with Chinese oil company Sinopec to build a network of 5000 charging and swapping stations for EV batteries, with the first opening in Beijing in 2021 [212].”

• cites [212]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

POSCO has attracted leading lithium producers such as Pilbara Minerals to South Korea to produce lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate; in Australia a 'Lithium Valley' is emerging centred on lithium hydroxide refining projects of Tianqi Lithium, SQM, and Albemarle in the Kwinana industrial zone close to Perth.

“For example, the large conglomerate POSCO has attracted leading producers of lithium (such as Pilbara Minerals) to South Korea to produce lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate; and in Australia a 'Lithium Valley' is emerging centred on lithium hydroxide refining projects of Tianqi Lithium, SQM, and Albemarle in the Kwinana industrial zone close to Perth.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Nio is rolling out BaaS under its Nio-Power business unit, offering both charging and battery swapping to EV owners.

“Nio, an EV manufacturer sometimes described as the 'Tesla of China', is rolling out BaaS under its Nio-Power business unit, offering both charging and battery swapping to EV owners.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

China has examples of BaaS including CATL, and the country's new NEV policy supports expansion of this approach.

“China too has examples of BaaSincluding cell and battery giant CATL -and the country's new NEV policy supports expansion of this approach.”

May combine two claims.

Epiroc is entering the 'energy storage as a service' business segment through provision of the first BaaS in mining operations, serving Vale at its two Canadian mines; Epiroc owns and monitors the rechargeable batteries used by Vale, replacing and updating them as required.

“Epiroc, a leading Swedish supplier of rock excavation equipment, is entering the 'energy storage as a service' business segment through provision of the first BaaS in mining operations, serving Brazilian mining firm Vale at its two Canadian mines.Epiroc owns and monitors the rechargeable batteries used by Vale, replacing and updating them as required.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the US, Biden's Infrastructure Bill sought to commit $174 billion towards creating a domestic supply chain for batteries and EVs.

“Similarly in the US, Biden's Infrastructure Bill sought to commit $174 billion towards creating a domestic supply chain for batteries and EVs.”

May combine two claims.

Post-Brexit rules of origin under the EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement require EVs to have 55% UK/EU content by 2027 and an originating battery pack to secure tariff and quota free trade.

“There are specific implications for the UK, post-Brexit, as 'rules of origin' requirements negotiated under the EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement to secure tariff and quota free trade mean EVs must have 55% UK/EU content by 2027, and must also have an originating battery pack [207].”

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The US Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (2021) allocated around $15 billion to the development of batteries and a national EV charging infrastructure, and the Biden Administration subsequently used the Defense Production Act to bolster domestic mining and mineral processing for battery minerals.

“The resulting US Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (2021) allocated around $15 billion to the development of batteries and a national EV charging infrastructure, and the Biden Administration has subsequently used its Presidential powers (via the Defense Production Act) to bolster domestic mining and mineral processing for battery minerals.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Vertical integration is frequently associated with logistical efforts to shorten supply lines, involving the co-location of anode, cathode, cell and battery production close to automotive OEM hubs.

“Vertical integration is frequently associated with logistical efforts to shorten supply lines, involving the co-location of anode, cathode, cell and battery production close to automotive OEM hubs.”

May combine two claims.

25 cities are now 'EV capitals' with over 50,000 passenger EV registrations, meaning over 10% of the global EV fleet (approx. 10 million vehicles) is concentrated in just 25 city-regions.

“In addition to competitive positioning as battery production zones, 25 cities are now 'EV capitals' with over 50,000 passenger EV registrations.45 This means over 10% of the global EV fleet (approx.10 million vehicles) is concentrated in just 25 city-regions, and explains why battery development has prioritized cost and faster charging for suburban cars, while extending drive range for family and”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lithium Australia aims to create a circular battery economy via operations spanning the lithium supply chain from extraction and refining, through cathode manufacturing to recycling of end-of-life batteries.

“An interesting example of vertical integration here is Lithium Australia, which aims to create a circular battery economy via operations spanning the lithium supply chain from extraction and refining, through cathode manufacturing to recycling of end-of-life batteries [205].”

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Europe is currently a core geography for BaaS, particularly in Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands where EV adoption rates are high.

“Europe is currently a core geography for BaaS, particularly in Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands where EV adoption rates are high.”

May combine two claims.

Tesla is adopting elements of vertical integration, having announced plans to manufacture cells and develop its own lithium mine in Nevada.

“Tesla is adopting elements of this strategy, having announced plans to manufacture cells (currently sourced from Panasonic, LG and CATL and assembled by Tesla into batteries) and develop its own lithium mine in Nevada (Verpraet 2020).”

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Northvolt 1's in-house Revolt recycling project aims to take back 100% of batteries at end-of-life and secure 50% recycled material in all new battery cells by 2030.

“Northvolt 1's inhouse Revolt recycling project, for example, aims to take back 100% of batteries at end-of-life and secure 50% recycled material in all new battery cells by 2030.”

May combine two claims.

BYD is the most developed example of vertical integration, manufacturing a diverse range of electric cars, buses, trucks and energy storage solutions, making their most valuable components (battery cells and transistors), and owning upstream material extraction and refining.

“The most developed example of vertical integration is BYD (Table 4), which not only manufactures a diverse range of electric cars, buses, trucks and energy storage solutions but also makes their most valuable components (battery cells and transistors) and owns upstream material extraction and refining [206].”

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The multiple stages of production and assembly involved in battery production may be geographically dispersed and linked by material flows, yet they are also organisationally integrated across multiple (and often competing) states.

“The multiple stages of production and assembly involved in battery production may be geographically dispersed and linked by material flows, yet they are also organisationally integrated across multiple (and often competing) states in ways that need to be better understood.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The relations and dynamics that make up the transnational economies of battery production are not well understood.

May combine two claims.

Nissan and Sumitomo are repurposing EV batteries for street lighting and large-scale ESS in Japan; Nissan has collaborated in an ESS for energy management in the Netherlands, repurposing battery packs from Nissan's LEAF EV to deliver back-up power and grid stabilization services at the Amsterdam Arena.

“Nissan and Sumitomo, for example, are repurposing EV batteries for street lighting and large-scale ESS in Japan; while Nissan has collaborated in an ESS for energy management in the Netherlands, repurposing battery packs from Nissan's LEAF EV to deliver back-up power and grid stabilization services at the Amsterdam Arena.”

May combine two claims.

Supply chain approaches pay only limited attention to organisational and geographical relations and overlook critical areas of intersection between battery production and OEM manufacturing for automotive and power sectors.

“They pay only limited attention to organisational and geographical relations, and they overlook critical areas of intersection between battery production and original equipment manufacturing (OEM) 1 for automotive and power sectors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The GPN approach is well-adapted for understanding how the business of battery production is increasingly influenced by actors and strategies linked to automobile manufacturing and to infrastructural actors associated with construction, electric utilities and fossil fuel retailing.

“Our GPN approach is well-adapted for understanding how the business of battery production is increasingly influenced by actors and strategies linked to automobile manufacturing, and to a range of 'infrastructural' actors associated with construction, electric utilities and fossil fuel retailing.”

May combine two claims.

There are now policy initiatives in the US and the EU focussed explicitly on battery minerals alongside other materials for a low carbon energy transition, that aim to create alternative supply chains and establish technological advantage.

“There are now policy initiatives in the US and the EU focussed explicitly on battery minerals alongside other materials for a low carbon energy transition, that aim to create alternative supply chains and establish technological advantage [151,48].”

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May combine two claims.

China's dominant market share in refining mineral products and its efforts to offset raw material supply risks by investing in overseas sources of supply have raised concern about resource availability.

“China's dominant market share in refining mineral products -and the country's efforts to offset raw material supply risks by investing in overseas sources of supply (see [150]) have raised concern about resource availability.”

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The 'supply side' focus in the reviewed work means that issues of physical material supply dominate and key organisational elements of demand and the role of end-use actors in restructuring supply chains are often overlooked.

“As we have seen, however, the 'supply side' focus in this work means that issues of physical material supply dominate and key organisational elements of demand and the role of end-use actors in restructuring supply chains are often overlooked.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Performance requirements for the automotive sector have increasingly shaped battery chemistry and technological development.

“We highlight how performance requirements for the automotive sector have increasingly shaped battery chemistry and technological development, and distinguish four geographies of production and ownership (Tables 123).”

May combine two claims.

There are advantages to co-locating electrode production with cell manufacture, so this is the first step in the process where market pull begins to significantly favor co-location with the end-product.

“There are advantages to co-locating electrode production with cell manufacture, so this is “the first step in the process where market pull begins to significantly favor co-location with the end-product” [48, p. 94].”

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recent work on the geopolitics of energy system transformation acknowledges some of the broader geopolitical and geo-economic consequences of decarbonisation and how a new 'energy order' may emerge from the ubiquity, flow character and lower energy density of renewables relative to fossil fuels.

“Recent work on the geopolitics of energy system transformation acknowledges some of the broader geopolitical and geo-economic consequences of decarbonisation and how, as roles for renewable power generation and electrification increase, a new 'energy order' may emerge from the ubiquity, flow character and lower energy density of renewables relative to fossil fuels [147,141,[152][153][154].”

• cites [147,141,[152][153][154]Not checked yet

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The different stages of battery production are connected materially by physical trade of materials and components, and financially by cross-border and cross-sectoral investment flows.

“The different stages of production are connected materially by physical trade of materials and components, and financially by cross-border and cross-sectoral investment flows.”

May combine two claims.

European battery production capacity is expected to increase 13-fold between 2020 and 2025, from 28 to 368 GWh, and is anticipated to outstrip China as the largest EV market, with battery production growing from 6% to around 22% of global supply and reducing China to 65% of global production.

“European battery production capacity is expected to increase 13-fold between 2020 and 2025 (from 28 to 368 GWh) and anticipated to outstrip China as the largest EV market, with battery production growing from 6% to around 22% of global supply (and reducing China to 65% of global production) [47].”

• cites [47]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Batteries are the largest component of lithium demand, with this share expected to increase to around 95% of total lithium demand by 2030.

“Batteries are the largest component of lithium demand, with this share expected to increase to around 95% of total lithium demand by 2030 [218].”

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Gigafactory growth is currently driven by automotive demand, with China and Europe expected to be the largest contributors where battery demand is linked to decarbonisation of road transport.

“Gigafactory growth is currently driven by automotive demand, with China and Europe expected to be the largest contributors where battery demand is linked to decarbonisation of road transport [47].”

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The upstream geography of raw material supply is to-date largely based on primary extraction rather than recycling, with mined mineral raw materials originating from diverse geographies.

“Finally, the upstream geography of raw material supply is to-date largely based on primary extraction rather than recycling, with these mined mineral raw materials originating from diverse geographies.”

May combine two claims.

The geopolitical consequences of expanding battery production extend beyond security of mineral supply to the rapid deployment of gigafactories, and the advancing electrification of the energy and mobility infrastructures to meet decarbonisation targets.

“The geopolitical consequences of expanding battery production extend beyond security of mineral supply to the rapid deployment of gigafactories, and the advancing electrification of the energy and mobility infrastructures to meet decarbonisation targets.”

May combine two claims.

The pipeline to 2030 for battery gigafactories runs to over 280 plants with a combined capacity of around 6000 GWh.

“The 'pipeline' to 2030 (i.e.plants currently producing, under-construction or planned) now runs to over 280 with a combined capacity of around 6000 GWh.[46,222].”

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May combine two claims.

South Korea (5% of global production) and Japan (4% of global production) are home to several lead firms in the battery sector.

“South Korea (5% of global production) and Japan (4% of global production) are home to several lead firms in the battery sector [34], such as LG (22% market share), Panasonic (19% market share), Toshiba, SK Innovation (SKI), or Samsung SDI (Samsung).”

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

There have been recent calls for a 'whole systems' approach to understanding the geopolitics of energy system transformation.

“It is in this context that there have been recent calls for a 'whole systems' approach to understanding the geopolitics of energy system transformation [147].”

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May combine two claims.

Projections of sharp mineral material demand create security of supply concerns and provoke geopolitical competition for control over parts of mineral supply chains.

“Projections of sharp mineral material demand create security of supply concerns and provoke geopolitical competition for the control over parts of mineral supply chains [147][148][149].”

• cites [147][148][149]Not checked yet

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There is a high degree of geographical concentration in mining: except for nickel, over 50% of production for each of these mineral raw materials comes from two countries and over two thirds of cobalt are sourced from the DRC.

“There is a high degree of geographical concentration in mining: except for nickel, over 50% of production for each of these mineral raw materials comes from two countries and over two thirds of cobalt are sourced from the DRC.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Battery production takes place in large-scale facilities ('gigafactories') in which individual cells are fabricated, combined into battery modules and sometimes assembled as packs for a particular end user.

“Battery production takes place in large-scale facilities ('gigafactories') in which individual cells are fabricated, combined into battery modules and (sometimes) assembled as packs for a particular end user [44].”

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Decarbonisation, electrification and growing demand for energy storage will augment total material demand even while fossil fuel use may decline.

“Stepping back, the work we have briefly reviewed shows how decarbonisation, electrification and growing demand for energy storage will augment total material demand even while fossil fuel use may decline [1,2].”

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Battery manufacturing is a classic global assembly process that is organisationally and geographically distributed.

“In this section we have shown how battery manufacturing is a classic 'global' assembly process that is organisationally and geographically distributed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These product-service portfolios allow for several different governance structures to evolve in anticipation of future JVs with multiple automotive OEMs around the development of battery chemistry, and contract manufacturing for customers in consumer electronics and ESS.

“These product-service portfolios allow for several different governance structures to evolve in anticipation of future JVs with multiple automotive OEMs around the development of battery chemistry (e.g.Northvolt, VW and Volvo), and contract manufacturing for customers in consumer electronics and ESS (e.g.Northvolt and Lingonberry cylindrical cells and prismatic battery modules).”

May combine two claims.

Organisational ties between automotive OEMs and battery producers are a key structure in the current LiB production network and an influence on its geographies.

“In this section we discuss how organisational ties between automotive OEMs and battery producers are a key structure in the current LiB production network and an influence on its geographies.”

May combine two claims.

Significant portions of the energy storage market are 'political markets' in the sense that supranational institutions have designed climate scenarios, and state and local governments have implemented decarbonisation policies-acting as facilitator and regulator-that create a demand for mobile and, to a lesser extent, stationary energy storage.

“Significant portions of the energy storage market are 'political markets' in the sense that supranational institutions have designed climate scenarios [186][187][188][189][190], and state and local governments have implemented decarbonisation policies -acting as facilitator and regulatorthat create a demand for mobile and, to a lesser extent, stationary energy storage.”

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May combine two claims.

While GPN has yet to be applied to the battery sector, it has been used in the context of upstream lithium extraction.

“While GPN has yet to be applied to the battery sector, it has been used in the context of upstream lithium extraction.”

May combine two claims.

State actions facilitated by the Green (New) Deal (US and EU) and net zero policies underpin the growth of battery markets and, in some instances, seek to regionalise battery production networks.

“We show how state actions facilitated by the Green (New) Deal (US and EU) and net zero policiesunderpin the growth of battery markets and, in some instances, seek to regionalise battery production networks.”

May combine two claims.

The LiB production network is strongly shaped by state action: to facilitate the growth of mobile and stationary energy storage markets; regulate investment and trade; and act as a buyer via public procurement or strategic purchases of critical minerals.

“Such distinctions are particularly apposite in the context of the LiB production network which, as we show in Section 4, is strongly shaped by state action: to facilitate the growth of mobile and stationary energy storage markets (e.g.petrol and diesel engine phase outs, EV uptake); regulate investment and trade (e.g.local supply chain obligations for foreign investors, trade policy); and act as a”

May combine two claims.

This internationalisation of state capital highlights the growing role of the 'EU macro-regional state' in shaping the battery production network, and how its role extends from facilitator and regulator to financing support for new production.

“This internationalisation of state capital highlights the growing role of the 'EU macro-regional state' in shaping the battery production network, and how its role extends from facilitator and regulator to financing support for new production.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Battery manufacturing lies outside the skill set of traditional auto-manufacturers, and many of their traditional strategies for controlling outsourced production in the context of ICE vehicles are less effective when it comes to EVs, as the battery accounts for a much larger proportion of the total cost of an EV vehicle than the engine in an ICE vehicle, and carries more risk for transport.

“However, battery manufacturing lies outside the skill set of traditional auto-manufacturers, and many of their traditional strategies for controlling outsourced production in the context of ICE vehiclesdual sourcing, cost competition, etc. -are less effective when it comes to EVs, as the battery accounts for a much larger proportion of the total cost of an EV vehicle than the engine in an ICE”

May combine two claims.

This strategy of direct investment enables OEMs to manage technological risk while allowing various pathways for IP development.

“This strategy enables OEMs to manage technological risk while allowing various pathways for IP development.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Competitive dynamics around mobile and stationary energy storage see automotive OEMs increasingly integrating with battery production, manufacturing both for electric mobility and ESS at grid, commercial and domestic scale.

“We highlight competitive dynamics around mobile and stationary energy storage that see automotive OEMs increasingly integrating with battery production, manufacturing both for electric mobility and ESS at grid, commercial and domestic scale (Fig. 2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Leasing batteries rather than selling them as part of the EV purchase can spur EV uptake by reducing the sticker price for vehicle consumers, while also offering improved battery performance; battery swapping gives battery suppliers access to extensive data on battery use and health and access to a concentrated battery mineral source as the battery returns at end-of-life.

“Leasing batteries, rather than selling them as part of the EV purchase, can spur EV uptake by reducing the sticker price for vehicle consumers, while also offering improved battery performance: battery swapping gives battery suppliers (as owners of leased batteries) access to extensive data on battery use and battery health, and access to a concentrated battery mineral source (for reuse, recycling”

May combine two claims.

Trade rules are likely to be a significant shaper of the LiB production network over the next few years, and are particularly significant for the rapid growth of gigafactory capacity in Europe.

“Trade rules are likely to be a significant shaper of the LiB production network over the next few years, and are particularly significant for the rapid growth of gigafactory capacity in Europe (see Section 2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

'Design for recycling' requirements and extended producer responsibility will influence upstream mineral sourcing decisions.

“On their own and in combination, 'design for recycling' requirements and extended producer responsibility will influence upstream mineral sourcing decisions.”

May combine two claims.

The overall effect of state policies is likely to be a shortening of supply chains and a regionalisation of production networks, as evidenced by Europe's accelerating efforts to establish a full domestic battery value chain.

“Their overall effect is likely to be a shortening of supply chains and a regionalisation of production networks, as evidenced by Europe's accelerating efforts to establish a full domestic battery value chain.”

May combine two claims.

Vertical integration allows lead firms to manage physical supply risks and commodity price volatility, reduce costs, and optimise gigafactory assets by developing a suite of products.

“Vertical integration allows lead firms to manage physical supply risks and commodity price volatility, reduce costs (thus freeing up cash) and optimise gigafactory assets by developing a suite of products.”

May combine two claims.

'Design for recycling' requirements and extended producer responsibility will encourage downstream integration of recycling with cell and battery manufacturing and potentially facilitate circular business models based on 'minerals as a service.'

“They will also encourage downstream integration of recycling with cell and battery manufacturing and, potentially, facilitate circular business models based on 'minerals as a service.'”

May combine two claims.

Several lead firms based in Asia have long-standing vertically integrated supply chains, and some producers in North America and Europe are seeking to develop similar structures.

“Several lead firms based in Asia have long-standing vertically integrated supply chains, and some producers in North America and Europe are seeking to develop similar structures [204].”

• cites [204]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

For refiners, backward integration addresses supply concerns; for extractive companies, downstream integration with value-adding stages can improve returns and provide a reliable route to markets in cell fabrication.

“For refiners, backward integration addresses supply concerns; and, for extractive companies, downstream integration with value-adding stages can improve returns and provide a reliable route to markets in cell fabrication [205].”

• cites [205]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Developing a product portfolio enables customization of battery production for different customers and creates opportunities for downstream integration.

“Developing a product portfolio enables customization of battery production for different customers, while also creating opportunities for downstream integration (see Tesla in relation to electricity generation via its ESS products, for example).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Over time, the battery production network will be shaped by consolidation of 'battery as a service' (BaaS) business models.

“Over time, the battery production network will be shaped by consolidation of 'battery as a service' (BaaS) business models (see Fig. 2, dynamics 4a and 4b).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This paper has demonstrated the value of a GPN approach for understanding the geopolitical economy of energy system transformation.

“To conclude, this paper has demonstrated the value of a GPN approach for understanding the geopolitical economy of energy system transformation.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The relations and dynamics that make up the transnational economies of battery production are not well understood.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Until now there has been no systematic effort to think through the organisational and geographical structures of LiB production.

May combine two claims.

GPN's relational perspective can analyse the organisational platforms through which LiB production takes place and identify how relations among firms, states and other actors influence the dynamic geographies of LiB production.

“Nonetheless, we have shown empirically in this section how GPN's relational perspective can analyse the organisational platforms through which LiB production takes place; and identify how relations among the firms, states and other actors comprising these platforms influence the dynamic geographies of LiB production.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The relations and dynamics that make up the transnational economies of battery production are not well understood.

May combine two claims.

A net-zero target consistent with 1.5 degrees may require a five to six-fold increase in annual base metal production by 2050 (e.g. copper, nickel, aluminium), with demand for lithium projected to grow to over 100-times its current level under such a scenario.

“A net-zero target consistent with 1.5 degrees may require a five to six-fold increase in annual base metal production by 2050 (e.g.copper, nickel, aluminium), with demand for lithium projected to grow to over 100-times its current level under such a scenario [215, 186, p. 271].”

• cites [215, 186, p. 271]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In Europe, government incentives to regionalise supply chains, transboundary investment (both within and into the EU), and organisational strategies of vertical integration are driving new geographies of battery production at a range of scales.

“GPN can show, for example, how in Europe government incentives to regionalise supply chains, transboundary investment (both within and into the EU), and organisational strategies of vertical integration are driving new geographies of battery production at a range of scales (e.g. the 'Baltic Belt').”

May combine two claims.

EV mandates, and municipal and state decarbonisation strategies more generally, have spurred battery demand and created an organisational environment in which automotive companies increasingly occupy the lead firm position in battery production networks.

“EV mandates, and municipal and state decarbonisation strategies more generally, have spurred battery demand and created an organisational environment in which automotive companies increasingly occupy the lead firm position in battery production networks.”

May combine two claims.

Rapid increases in demand are likely to tighten markets for existing battery minerals (like nickel), propelling shifts towards other battery chemistries such as LFP and manganese-rich cathodes.

“Caveats and uncertainties necessarily attend projections like these, not least because such rapid increases in demand are likely to tighten markets for existing battery minerals (like nickel), propelling shifts towards other battery chemistries such as LFP and manganese-rich cathodes [186].”

• cites [186]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The cost of the battery means EV manufacturing networks are qualitatively different to those associated with producing petrol or diesel cars; and, for the most part, battery minerals are not consumed in use but can be recovered and used again, opening up novel value capture possibilities downstream.

“The cost of the battery means EV manufacturing networks are qualitatively different to those associated with producing petrol or diesel cars; and, for the most part, battery minerals are not consumed in use (like the bulk of oil and gas) but can be recovered and used again, opening up novel value capture possibilities downstream.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A GPN approach moves beyond supply chain analysis to highlight important geographical and organisational structures shaping battery production.

“In this section, we demonstrated how a GPN approach moves beyond supply chain analysis to highlight important geographical and organisational structures shaping battery production.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The relations and dynamics that make up the transnational economies of battery production are not well understood.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

As economies decarbonise, and renewables replace fossil fuels in energy systems in ways that significantly expand demand for minerals, new production networks are emerging that intersect with and disrupt established networks.

“As economies decarbonise, and renewables replace fossil fuels in energy systems in ways that significantly expand demand for minerals, new production networks are emerging that intersect with and disrupt established networks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The evolution of value capture strategies around batteries, from a product offer to a service, aligns with increasing concerns about access to minerals and governance of their environmental and social impacts.

“Here the evolution of value capture strategies around batteries, from a product offer to a service, aligns with increasing concerns about access to minerals and governance of their environmental and social impacts (as reflected, for example, in the anticipated EU Battery Regulation).”