The influence of screen time on behaviour and emotional problems among adolescents: a comparison study of the pre-, peak, and post-peak periods of COVID-19

“Adolescents might be more inclined to search for the latest information concerning COVID-19, inducing robust information influx that could worsen their psychosocial states [77,78].”

“…on three typical activities [1]: watching television, with screen time for watching videos or television shows and playing console/offline games [2]; using personal computers such as laptops/tablets/iPads, with screen time for watching television shows, YouTube or social media activities,…”

“Consequently, they had less contact with their peers [3,4].”

“The developmental model of the adolescent brain suggests that the affective-motivational system matures in early adolescence, whereas the control system matures in early adulthood [32].”

“…the feeling of boredom and stress at school or at home, or even to feel accepted by their peers, who can create social relationships with them through collaboration and competition in games, which reinforces wider and stronger social relationships that may strengthen pro-social behaviour [25,69].”

“Chen et al. [6] found an association between the use of electronic entertainment, depression, and anxiety among adolescents during the peak period of the COVID-19 pandemic, suggesting that screen time may potentially endanger and critically influence adolescents ’ mental well-being [13,48,49].”

“Several studies have also suggested that late adolescents begin to gain higher levels of independence from their parents and caregivers; therefore, it is assumed that they use smartphones more frequently as they age [58 – 60].”

“Although the average increase in total screen time during the pandemic in Indonesia was less than that in China and Spain, it has important clinical implications, as more extensive screen time may influence adolescents ’ mental well-being [52,53].”

“During the peak period of the COVID-19 pandemic, with school closures and remote operations in other public places, adolescents were forced to stay at home or in secure indoor places [13,17 – 19].”

“…well-being, especially during the peak period of COVID-19, which may have created additional stressors, such as compulsively seeking online social connectedness from peers due to feelings of loneliness, worry stemming from anxiety due to the spread of COVID-19, or screen time fatigue [51,56,57].”

“This unfavourable situation could drive adolescents to use maladaptive coping mechanisms that result in increased screen time including in video games [72,79].”

“However, the latest policy published in 2016 [24] recommends that families design individualised family digital media use schedules without indicating universal daily screen time thresholds.”

“Chen et al. [6] found an association between the use of electronic entertainment, depression, and anxiety among adolescents during the peak period of the COVID-19 pandemic, suggesting that screen time may potentially endanger and critically influence adolescents ’ mental well-being [13,48,49].”

“Chen et al. [6] found an association between the use of electronic entertainment, depression, and anxiety among adolescents during the peak period of the COVID-19 pandemic, suggesting that screen time may potentially endanger and critically influence adolescents ’ mental well-being [13,48,49].”

“However, during the peak period of the pandemic, smartphones may pose a risk because of the large amount of information related to the pandemic [13,64].”

“Screen time is defined as the time spent on digital media, including computers, televisions, video games, smartphones, tablets, and handheld devices, excluding acoustic activities such as listening to music or conversing on the phone [14].”

“…such as laptops/tablets/iPads, with screen time for watching television shows, YouTube or social media activities, online/offline games, and chatting; and [3] using smartphones, with screen time for online/offline games, YouTube, social media connections/chatting, online shopping, and so forth.”

“These findings indicate that proper utilisation can result in positive outcomes (e.g. alleviating anxiety, depression, and loneliness) during the pandemic [6,70,71].”

“The relationship between sleep disturbance and psychological problems can be bidirectional, as it can act either as a risk factor or symptom of a problem [67,68].”

“When used extensively, such technologies may displace important protective behaviours such as family connectedness, role models, and empathetic validation from family, peers, and the environment [54,55].”

“Another study in South Korea reported a significant increase in screen time during the COVID-19 pandemic, which was associated with more mental health problems, such as emotional and conduct behaviours, among adolescents [39].”

“…well-being, especially during the peak period of COVID-19, which may have created additional stressors, such as compulsively seeking online social connectedness from peers due to feelings of loneliness, worry stemming from anxiety due to the spread of COVID-19, or screen time fatigue [51,56,57].”

“Before the COVID-19 pandemic, several studies revealed that increased screen time was correlated with depression, anxiety, and conduct and prosocial behaviour problems among children and adolescents [35 – 37].”

“Adolescence is a sensitive period of turmoil during which neurobiological systems develop and change, making adolescents particularly vulnerable to emotional and behavioural problems [28 – 31].”

“This could be due to the positive effects of smartphones compared to other gadgets, which are said to be a newer class of cell phones that can provide information when someone needs it by merely touching a button [63].”

“Similarly, a Spanish study found that adolescents engaged in more screen time (an increase of 198 min per day) during the peak period of the pandemic than before the pandemic [53].”

“Therefore, increased screen time during the peak period of the COVID-19 pandemic is assumed to be a potential mental health threat to adolescents, leading to more emotional and behavioural problems [13,38,41,44].”

“The disruption caused by COVID-19 and its consequences on adolescents ’ mental well-being, including screen time, have been a major concern for several scholars [4,10 – 13].”

“Uncertainty about academic events due to online schooling might also increase psychosocial problems during peak period of the COVID-19 pandemic [4,76].”

“Increasing the total screen time per day is assumed to stimulate the neurobiological system, especially the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis [26] and dopaminergic, serotonergic, and adrenergic circuits [27], leading to several types of emotional and behavioural problems.”

“These circumstances naturally led to more hours of digital media or gadget use (e.g. personal computers, laptops, televisions, and mobile devices), especially for entertainment purposes, such as inter-personal communications (chatting), watching television, or other leisure activities [20 – 22].”

“When used extensively, such technologies may displace important protective behaviours such as family connectedness, role models, and empathetic validation from family, peers, and the environment [54,55].”

“W i g u n a e t a l . adolescents are naturally prone to emotional problems due to the lack of capacity to resolve problems in a mature manner [36,73], and inside video games problems are typically more complex than those real-life.”

“Two studies have found that adolescents with higher levels of smartphone screen time during the peak period of the pandemic had lower psychological well-being, including poorer emotional regulation and impulse control [25,65].”

“Specifically, excessive screen time may trigger highly rewarding stimuli and is correlated with decreased sensitivity to general rewards and reduced capacity for enjoyment, thus averting mood and augmenting impulsivity, as emphasised by the involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) [40 – 44].”

“Increased smartphone screen time has also been correlated with impaired sleep in adolescents [66].”

“However, during the peak period of the pandemic, smartphones may pose a risk because of the large amount of information related to the pandemic [13,64].”

“Adolescence is a sensitive period of turmoil during which neurobiological systems develop and change, making adolescents particularly vulnerable to emotional and behavioural problems [28 – 31].”

“Therefore, increased screen time during the peak period of the COVID-19 pandemic is assumed to be a potential mental health threat to adolescents, leading to more emotional and behavioural problems [13,38,41,44].”

“Specifically, excessive screen time may trigger highly rewarding stimuli and is correlated with decreased sensitivity to general rewards and reduced capacity for enjoyment, thus averting mood and augmenting impulsivity, as emphasised by the involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) [40 – 44].”

“Several studies have also suggested that late adolescents begin to gain higher levels of independence from their parents and caregivers; therefore, it is assumed that they use smartphones more frequently as they age [58 – 60].”

“Adolescents might be more inclined to search for the latest information concerning COVID-19, inducing robust information influx that could worsen their psychosocial states [77,78].”

“Increasing the total screen time per day is assumed to stimulate the neurobiological system, especially the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis [26] and dopaminergic, serotonergic, and adrenergic circuits [27], leading to several types of emotional and behavioural problems.”

“Screen time, specifically smartphone addiction, has been suggested to contribute to psychopathology in previous studies [45 – 47].”

“However, adolescence can be a time of interpersonal and relational conflicts, leading to emotional and behavioural problems that persist until adulthood [7 – 9].”

“Pratama and Scarlatos [61] found that Indonesian students favoured smartphones the most among various electronic devices, regardless of their socioeconomic background.”

“However, adolescence can be a time of interpersonal and relational conflicts, leading to emotional and behavioural problems that persist until adulthood [7 – 9].”

“…the feeling of boredom and stress at school or at home, or even to feel accepted by their peers, who can create social relationships with them through collaboration and competition in games, which reinforces wider and stronger social relationships that may strengthen pro-social behaviour [25,69].”

“A study conducted in Indonesia in 2019 showed that 38 % of 200 adolescents spent more time on the Internet ( > 6 h per day), which is associated with higher screen time usage and sedentary behaviour [16].”

“The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated this issue, increasing adolescents’ screen time from 2.7 to 4.1 h per day [9], with nearly 60% of adolescents exceeding 10 h of screen time during peak pandemic periods [10].”

“Media use varied considerably between different time periods of the pandemic, with higher media time during peak incidence periods [70].”

“Grade 8 is a period characterised by significant polarisation in academic performance, moral development, and behavioural norms, and is also a peak period for psychological and behavioural issues (Chen et al., 2023; Wiguna et al., 2023).”

“…literature linking increased screen use with increased internalising and externalising disorders (Abdoli et al., 2024, 2025; Eirich et al., 2022; Kauhanen et al., 2023; Lua et al., 2023) as well as decreased prosocial behaviour (Bäker & Schütz-Wilke, 2023; Wiguna et al., 2024) during the pandemic.”