Exploring the relationship between digital gaming, language attitudes, and academic success in EFL university students

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One student who did not feel that he stood out mentioned that he had represented his class in a recognized English competition.

“Surprisingly, one student who did not feel that he stood out mentioned that he had represented his class in a recognized English competition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Two interviewees highlighted their exposure to diverse regional accents while playing a particular action-adventure game.

“Furthermore, two interviewees highlighted their exposure to diverse regional accents while playing a particular action-adventure game.”

May combine two claims.

Most players (73%) achieved a score within the highest interval (21-25) on the Vocabulary Test, while non-players' scores were distributed mostly within the highest three intervals.

“While most players (73 %) achieved a score within the highest interval (21–25), the scores of non-players were distributed mostly within the highest three intervals (Fig. 6).”

May combine two claims.

Players had higher average Vocabulary Test scores than non-players, with a statistically significant difference (Z = 3.660, p = 0.000).

“The average scores obtained (from the total 25 items) were higher in the group of players (21.04) than in non-players (18.54) (Fig. 5). The statistical difference between the groups was statistically significant at the level α = 0.05 (Z = 3.660, p = 0.000) (Table 1) as verified by the Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · plain

  “The results reveal a significant improvement in vocabulary knowledge and a reported increase in positive language attitudes among gamers compared to non-gamers, with no significant difference in grade point averages between the two groups.”

May combine two claims.

Overall English academic achievement during undergraduate study, expressed by grade point average, revealed similar scores for the players and non-players, even for the sub-scores calculated in courses focusing on English language systems, language skills, and cultural studies (Hypothesis 2 was rejected).

“The comparison of overall English academic achievement during undergraduate study, expressed by grade point average, revealed similar scores for the players and non-players, even for the sub-scores calculated in courses focusing on English language systems, language skills, and cultural studies (Hypothesis 2 was rejected).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Each gamer usually plays games of at least two different genres, with the most frequent type being role-playing games (49%).

“Each gamer usually plays games of at least two different genres, with the most frequent type being role-playing games (49 %).”

May combine two claims.

Our interview findings were inconsistent with the quantitative results regarding GPA, as participants reported outperforming their peers in English-oriented classes primarily due to their engagement with digital games.

“In addition, our interview findings were inconsistent with the quantitative results regarding GPA, as participants reported outperforming their peers in English-oriented classes primarily due to their engagement with digital games.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All but one respondent identified themselves as "gamers".

“In addition, all but one respondent identified themselves as “gamers”.”

May combine two claims.

Attitudes toward English were more positive among the players than among the non-players (Hypothesis 1 was confirmed).

“attitudes toward English were more positive among the players than among the non-players (Hypothesis 1 was confirmed).”

May combine two claims.

45% of undergraduate EFL students in the study reported playing video games, compared to 58% in the EU report.

“where 45 % of undergraduate EFL students reported playing video games, compared to 58 % in the EU report.”

• cites [21] Statistical Office of the European Union Key Figures on Europe: Statistics Illustrated 2019 Edition 2019 Publications Office of the European Union https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/15216629/15222516/KS-EI-19-001-EN-N.pdf/cced5315-a314-9bd2-fab2-85d85e55b184?t=1666864378561Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

Students felt that digital games facilitated their academic performance in English language subjects/courses at all levels of education, from primary to tertiary.

“Students felt that digital games facilitated their academic performance in English language subjects/courses at all levels of education, from primary to tertiary.”

May combine two claims.

Players had higher average Language Attitude Scale scores than non-players, with a statistically significant difference (Z = 1.975, p = 0.048).

“The average scores obtained (within the interval 30–150) were higher in the group of players (107.18) than in non-players (101.59) (Fig. 1). The statistical difference between the groups was statistically significant at the level α = 0.05 (Z = 1.975, p = 0.048) (Table 1) as verified by the Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · plain

  “The results reveal a significant improvement in vocabulary knowledge and a reported increase in positive language attitudes among gamers compared to non-gamers, with no significant difference in grade point averages between the two groups.”

May combine two claims.

Most players (43 respondents) indicated that playing computer games helps improve their English language competence, primarily vocabulary (89%) and pronunciation (31%).

“Most players (43 respondents) indicated that playing computer games helps improve their English language competence, primarily their vocabulary (89 %) and pronunciation (31 %).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Other respondents disagreed with the stereotype and mentioned that for them being called a "gamer" was a compliment.

“However, other respondents disagreed with this stereotype and mentioned that for them being called a “gamer” was a compliment.”

May combine two claims.

Role-playing games ranked last in terms of GPA, while action-adventure games ranked second to last.

“Surprisingly, role-playing games ranked last in terms of GPA, while action-adventure games ranked second to last.”

May combine two claims.

Action-adventure ranked second in terms of language attitude, with role-playing games following closely behind.

“Additionally, action-adventure ranked second in terms of language attitude, with role-playing games following closely behind.”

May combine two claims.

None of the participants reported playing educational or serious games, nor did they engage with number-based games.

“It is worth noting that none of the participants reported playing educational or serious games, nor did they engage with number-based games.”

May combine two claims.

Most non-players (89%) indicated playing computer games as helpful in increasing English language competence, mainly vocabulary (83%).

“Similarly, most non-players (89 %) also indicated playing computer games as helpful in increasing English language competence – mainly vocabulary (83 %).”

May combine two claims.

Respondents indicated that games were one of the factors that promoted positive attitudes toward English, along with having a good English teacher and watching interesting videos in English.

“The respondents indicated that games were one of the factors that promoted positive attitudes toward English, along with having a good English teacher and watching interesting videos in English.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All digital games identified in the study were commercially available off-the-shelf titles.

“Additionally, the study revealed that all digital games identified were commercially available off-the-shelf titles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Because they used English as a primary language to communicate in the games, even though they spoke the same mother tongue, they often communicated in English outside of the gaming environment, such as at school during breaks.

“They also mentioned that because they used English as a primary language to communicate in the games, even though they spoke the same mother tongue, they often communicated in English outside of the gaming environment, such as at school during breaks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most respondents considered learning with a good English teacher to be an equally important motivator for learning English.

“Interestingly, most respondents considered learning with a good English teacher to be an equally important motivator for learning English.”

May combine two claims.

These genres were also found to be more effective in improving cognitive abilities, particularly in vocabulary tests where they achieved the highest scores.

“These genres were also found to be more effective in improving cognitive abilities, particularly in vocabulary tests where they achieved the highest scores.”

May combine two claims.

The frequency of game playing as determined by the questionnaire was significantly correlated only with the results of the Vocabulary Test (Hypothesis 6 was confirmed, Hypotheses 4 and 5 were rejected).

“Comparing the learners’ scores in the domain of attitude, achievement, and vocabulary, it was found that the frequency of game playing as determined by the questionnaire was significantly correlated only with the results of the Vocabulary Test (Hypothesis 6 was confirmed, Hypotheses 4 and 5 were rejected).”

May combine two claims.

Role-playing games scored the lowest in terms of GPA, with adventure-action games scoring the second lowest.

“Surprisingly, despite the vocabulary gains, role-playing games scored the lowest in terms of GPA, with adventure-action games scoring the second lowest.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Most players indicated a preference for multiplayer role-playing games, which were seen as not only more attractive but probably also beneficial to their language competence and attitude.

“Most players indicated a preference for multiplayer role-playing games, which were seen as not only more attractive but probably also beneficial to their language competence and attitude.”

May combine two claims.

The vocabulary test scores of gamers were significantly higher than those of non-gamers (Hypothesis 3 was confirmed).

“Specifically, the vocabulary test scores of gamers were significantly higher than those of non-gamers (Hypothesis 3 was confirmed).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

DGBL has been demonstrated to be an effective tool for enhancing foreign language learning outcomes in different contexts, with the majority of research in Asia and Europe.

“DGBL has been demonstrated to be an effective tool for enhancing foreign language learning outcomes [[8], [9], [10]] in different contexts with the majority of research in Asia and Europe (e.g., Ref. [[11], [12], [13]]).”

• cites [[8], [9], [10]]Not checked yet

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• cites [[11], [12], [13]]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Foreign language learners reported an overall positive attitude towards learning a language using digital games and often cited increased motivation as a key benefit.

“Foreign language learners reported an overall positive attitude towards learning a language using digital games [[11], [15],43,46] and often cited increased motivation as one of the key benefits [10,12,38].”

• cites [[11], [15],43,46]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [10] Sailer M. Homner L. The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis Educ. Psychol. Rev. 32 1 2020 77 112 10.1007/s10648-019-09498-w sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [12] Patra I. Shanmugam N. Ismail S.M. Mandal G. An Investigation of EFL Learners' Vocabulary Retention and Recall in a Technology-Based Instructional Environment: Focusing on Digital Games 2022 Education Research International 10 10.1155/2022/7435477 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [38] Rasti A. Why digital games can Be advantageous in vocabulary learning Theor. Pract. Lang. Stud. 11 2021 111 118 10.17507/tpls.1102.01Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The game environment can evoke feelings of enjoyment and security, which might reduce learners' anxiety about using a foreign language and making mistakes.

“Additionally, the game environment can evoke feelings of enjoyment and security, which might reduce learners’ anxiety about using a foreign language and making mistakes [15,36,40].”

• cites [15] Peake J. Reynolds A. “There's a sniper on that hill!”: gaming in English as a global language environment Angles 11 2020 10.4000/ANGLES.3237 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [36] Dincer N. Dincer R. The effect of a serious game on aviation vocabulary acquisition International Journal of Serious Games 8 4 2021 49 63 10.17083/ijsg.v8i4.464 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [40] Kralova Z. Kamenicka J. Tirpakova A. Positive emotional stimuli in teaching Foreign Language vocabulary System 104 October 2022 10.1016/j.system.2021.102678 102678–102678 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

After each interview question, the respondent's answers were repeated to confirm that the output data matched their intention.

“Additionally, after each interview question, the respondent's answers were repeated to confirm that the output data matched their intention.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Vocabulary Test pilot had an internal consistency of 0.87.

“The pilot test (internal consistency 0.87) was conducted in a group of 10 respondents with characteristics of the research sample who subsequently did not further participate in the experiment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The questionnaire pilot had an internal consistency of 0.82.

“The pilot was then conducted with a group of 10 respondents with the characteristics of the research sample (internal consistency 0.82).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The current sample (English majors) was rather homogeneous in terms of their English language competence.

“as the current sample (English majors) was rather homogeneous in terms of their English language competence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Peer debriefing and member-checking techniques were used to ensure the credibility of data collection and analysis.

“Peer debriefing and member-checking techniques were used to ensure the credibility of data collection and analysis, following the proposal by Lincoln and Guba [60] as cited in Cohen et al. [50] (p. 136).”

• cites [60] Lincoln Y.S. Guba E.G. Naturalistic Inquiry 1985 SAGE Publications IncNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [50] Cohen L. Manion L. Morrison K. Research Methods in Education sixth ed. 2007 RoutledgeNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S4 (based).

The frequency of playing digital games in English can predict the level of outcome variables: English language attitude, English language academic achievement, and English vocabulary knowledge.

“The frequency of playing digital games in English was considered a predictor variable with the potential to predict the level of outcome variables [50] – English language attitude, English language academic achievement, and English vocabulary knowledge.”

• cites [50] Cohen L. Manion L. Morrison K. Research Methods in Education sixth ed. 2007 RoutledgeNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The trend identified by the Statistical Office of the European Union [21] is reflected in our study.

“The trend identified by the Statistical Office of the European Union [21] is reflected in our study”

• cites [21] Statistical Office of the European Union Key Figures on Europe: Statistics Illustrated 2019 Edition 2019 Publications Office of the European Union https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/15216629/15222516/KS-EI-19-001-EN-N.pdf/cced5315-a314-9bd2-fab2-85d85e55b184?t=1666864378561Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Peer debriefing was utilized by consulting all output data with the other authors to review the interviews and identify potential errors or biases.

“Moreover, peer debriefing was utilized, similar to cross-examination, by consulting all output data with the other authors of this manuscript. This helped to review the interviews and identify any potential errors or biases.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

All variables were quantified using reliable research instruments, and cause-and-effect relationships were validated through the participants' perspectives in the interview.

“All variables (gaming frequency, attitudes toward language, academic achievement, and vocabulary knowledge) were quantified using reliable research instruments, and the cause-and-effect relationships were validated through the participant's perspectives in the interview.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The motivation of common players to learn a language for games could be enhanced by intrinsic motivational models of language learning among EFL learners [62].

“Therefore, the motivation of common players to learn a language for games could be enhanced by intrinsic motivational models of language learning among EFL learners [62].”

• cites [62] Ryan R. Deci E. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being Am. Psychol. 55 2000 68 78 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 11392867 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Six items with little discriminability were identified and replaced by different items.

“Following an analysis, six items with little discriminability for which the respondents consistently answered correctly were identified and replaced by different items.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All participants provided written informed consent.

“All participants provided written informed consent.”

May combine two claims.

The findings highlight the potential of digital gaming to enhance vocabulary learning and foster positive attitudes towards language learning among EFL students.

“These findings highlight the potential of digital gaming to enhance vocabulary learning and foster positive attitudes towards language learning among EFL students.”

May combine two claims.

This finding neither concurs with the results of other research demonstrating the facilitative effects of gaming on foreign language achievement (e.g., Ref. [63,64]), nor with the results showing that exam grades are negatively correlated with gaming frequency [28,29].

“This finding neither concurs with the results of other research demonstrating the facilitative effects of gaming on foreign language achievement (e.g., Ref. [63,64]), nor with the results showing that exam grades are negatively correlated with gaming frequency [28,29].”

• cites [63] Suh S. Kim S.W. Kim N.J. Effectiveness of MMORPG-based instruction in elementary English education in Korea J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 26 5 2010 370 378 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00353.x sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [64] Sundqvist P. Wikström P. Out-of-school digital gameplay and in-school L2 English vocabulary outcomes System 51 July 2015 65 76 10.1016/j.system.2015.04.001 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [28] Ip B. Jacobs G. Watkins A. Gaming frequency and academic performance Australas. J. Educ. Technol. 24 4 2008 10.14742/ajet.1197 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [29] Drummond A. Sauer J.D. Timesplitters: playing video games before (but not after) school on weekdays is associated with poorer adolescent academic performance. A test of competing theoretical accounts Comput. Educ. 144 2020 103704 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103704 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A semi-structured individual interview was used in conjunction with other methods to triangulate the data.

“A semi-structured individual interview was used in conjunction with other methods to triangulate the data and further characterize the participants՚ self-perceptions and experiences of the impact of gaming and other activities on their English language attitude and achievement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Language Attitude Scale was inspired by the Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale and the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale.

“The scale (Appendix B) used was inspired by the Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale [55] and the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale [56].”

• cites [55] Dewaele J.M. Macintyre P.D. The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom Stud. Second Lang. Learn. Teach. 4 2 2014 237 274 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [56] Horwitz E.K. Horwitz M.B. Cope J. Foreign Language classroom anxiety Mod. Lang. J. 70 2 1986 125 132 10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.x sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The interview data analysis followed the methodology described by Hycner.

“To analyze the data, we followed the methodology described by Hycner [61], as cited in Cohen et al. [50], (p. 471).”

• cites [61] Hycner R.H. Some guidelines for the phenomenological analysis of interview data Hum. Stud. 8 1985 279 303Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [50] Cohen L. Manion L. Morrison K. Research Methods in Education sixth ed. 2007 RoutledgeNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The majority of participants preferred games that included text or voice prompts, either directly or indirectly.

“Therefore, it can be inferred that the majority of participants preferred games that included text or voice prompts, either directly or indirectly.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The immersive experience provided by games gives players the opportunity to travel virtually [15], potentially increasing their interest in studying foreign languages and cultures.

“The immersive experience provided by games gives players the opportunity to travel virtually [15], potentially increasing their interest in studying foreign languages and cultures.”

• cites [15] Peake J. Reynolds A. “There's a sniper on that hill!”: gaming in English as a global language environment Angles 11 2020 10.4000/ANGLES.3237 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

A direct comparison of average scores by game genre is problematic because the groups contain diverse amounts of players, so extreme values are often shown.

“However, a direct comparison of the average scores is rather problematic, as the groups contain diverse amounts of players, thus extreme values of the variables are often shown.”

May combine two claims.

The Language Attitude Scale had acceptable internal consistency and test-retest reliability (Cronbach alpha = 0.88).

“In pilot testing an acceptable internal consistency level and test-retest reliability were revealed (Cronbach alpha = 0.88).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

It is important to interpret these conflicting findings with caution due to the small sample size, which may have led to extreme results.

“However, it is important to interpret these conflicting findings with caution due to the small sample size, which may have led to extreme results.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The sample size and structure is a limitation.

“A second limitation is the sample size and structure”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The use of larger and more diverse populations may allow group distinctions to emerge more clearly.

“the use of larger and more diverse populations may allow group distinctions to emerge more clearly”

May combine two claims.

While players may increase their vocabulary, this does not necessarily translate into academic success.

“This implies that while players may increase their vocabulary, this does not necessarily translate into academic success.”

May combine two claims.

The findings presented are consistent with previous research indicating that the role-playing game genre may stimulate the highest cognitive domain [32,48,49], as evidenced by the highest vocabulary test scores.

“The findings presented are consistent with previous research indicating that the role-playing game genre may stimulate the highest cognitive domain [32,48,49], as evidenced by the highest vocabulary test scores.”

• cites [32] Sundqvist P. Commercial-off-the-shelf games in the digital wild and L2 learner vocabulary Lang. Learn. Technol. 23 1 2019 87 113Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [48] Dixon D. Dixon T. Jordan E. Second Language (L2) gains through digital gamebased Language Learning (DGBLL): a meta-analysis Lang. Learn. Technol. 26 1 2022 1 25Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [49] Peterson M. The use of massively multiplayer online role-playing games in CALL: an analysis of research Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 29 7 2016 1181 1194 10.1080/09588221.2016.1197949 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Our efforts to develop a reliable instrument to measure this variable proved to be quite complicated.

“Nevertheless, our efforts to develop a reliable instrument to measure this variable proved to be quite complicated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All participants provided informed consent to participate in the study.

“All participants provided informed consent to participate in the study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These findings are consistent with Rasti's [38] study, which emphasizes the importance of these elements in learning foreign language vocabulary through digital games.

“These findings are consistent with Rasti's [38] study, which emphasizes the importance of these elements in learning foreign language vocabulary through digital games.”

• cites [38] Rasti A. Why digital games can Be advantageous in vocabulary learning Theor. Pract. Lang. Stud. 11 2021 111 118 10.17507/tpls.1102.01Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One contributing factor may be that students neglect academic responsibilities to spend more time gaming [28,29].

“One contributing factor may be that students neglect academic responsibilities to spend more time gaming [28,29].”

• cites [28] Ip B. Jacobs G. Watkins A. Gaming frequency and academic performance Australas. J. Educ. Technol. 24 4 2008 10.14742/ajet.1197 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [29] Drummond A. Sauer J.D. Timesplitters: playing video games before (but not after) school on weekdays is associated with poorer adolescent academic performance. A test of competing theoretical accounts Comput. Educ. 144 2020 103704 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103704 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All participants provided informed consent for the publication of their anonymized case details.

“All participants provided informed consent for the publication of their anonymized case details.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

EFL students seem particularly receptive to and can benefit from the language side of games.

“They seem particularly receptive to and can benefit from the language side of games.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The selection of test items was based on the authors' teaching and gaming experience.

“Although the selection of test items was based on the authors’ teaching and gaming experience”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This study was reviewed and approved by Ethics Committee of Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, with approval number UKF/74/2024/191013:003.

“This study was reviewed and approved by Ethics Committee of Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, with the approval number: UKF/74/2024/191013:003.”

May combine two claims.

It has been shown effective in increasing learners' positive attitudes toward learning a foreign language and expanding their foreign language vocabulary.

“It has been shown effective in increasing learners’ positive attitudes toward learning a foreign language and expanding their foreign language vocabulary.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Playing digital games is an effective complementary activity that can be easily used in foreign language learning across diverse educational contexts.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The wide variety and rapid development of digital games prevents the creation of a universal vocabulary test for digital game players [12,14].

“the wide variety and rapid development of digital games prevents the creation of a universal vocabulary test for digital game players [12,14].”

• cites [12] Patra I. Shanmugam N. Ismail S.M. Mandal G. An Investigation of EFL Learners' Vocabulary Retention and Recall in a Technology-Based Instructional Environment: Focusing on Digital Games 2022 Education Research International 10 10.1155/2022/7435477 2022Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [14] Rasti-Behbahani A. Shahbazi M. Investigating the effectiveness of a digital game-based task on the acquisition of word knowledge Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 38 8 2020 1920 1945 10.1080/09588221.2020.1846567 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Game playing cannot serve as a universal substitute for real-life communication practice.

“Nevertheless, game playing cannot serve as a universal substitute for real-life communication practice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

EFL students seem to be quite specific in this context.

“as EFL students seem to be quite specific in this context.”