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Cited by 795Reading and Literacy DevelopmentCognitive Abilities and TestingDevelopmental and Educational Neuropsychology

Working memory in children with reading disabilities

Gathercole, Susan Elizabeth, Alloway, Tracy Packiam, Willis, Catherine, Adams, Anne-Marie·2006·Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
DOI 10.1016/j.jecp.2005.08.003
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Abstract

This study investigated associations between working memory (measured by complex memory tasks) and both reading and mathematics abilities, as well as the possible mediating factors of fluid intelligence, verbal abilities, short-term memory (STM), and phonological awareness, in a sample of 46 6- to 11-year-olds with reading disabilities. As a whole, the sample was characterized by deficits in complex memory and visuospatial STM and by low IQ scores; language, phonological STM, and phonological awareness abilities fell in the low average range. Severity of reading difficulties within the sample was significantly associated with complex memory, language, and phonological awareness abilities, whereas poor mathematics abilities were linked with complex memory, phonological STM, and phonological awareness scores. These findings suggest that working memory skills indexed by complex memory tasks represent an important constraint on the acquisition of skill and knowledge in reading and mathematics. Possible mechanisms for the contribution of working memory to learning, and the implications for educational practice, are considered.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In 46 children aged 6–11 with reading disabilities, complex working memory and visuospatial short-term memory were markedly impaired, while phonological short-term memory, language, and phonological processing were low average. Complex memory was the strongest correlate of both reading and mathematics and independently predicted reading and, in some models, mathematics after IQ, language, and phonological measures were considered.

Key findings

  • The sample had low reading and mathematics scores: WORD composite mean 76.46 (SD 8.44) and WOND composite mean 84.39 (SD 12.13). Complex memory (mean 77.72, SD 8.96) and visuospatial short-term memory (mean 75.13, SD 9.56) were especially low, whereas phonological short-term memory (mean 90.18, SD 11.08), language (mean 87.78, SD 10.69), verbal IQ (mean 83.39, SD 11.86), and performance IQ (mean 82.35, SD 13.84) were low average/low.
  • Most children scored in the lowest band (<81) on complex memory (61%) and visuospatial short-term memory (70%).
  • Complex memory correlated significantly with all other measures and was the strongest predictor of mean reading and mathematics scores. Reading correlated with complex memory (r = .557), language (r = .478), phonological processing (r = .442), verbal IQ (r = .350), and performance IQ (r = .330); mathematics correlated with complex memory (r = .591), phonological processing (r = .496), performance IQ (r = .427), language (r = .414), and phonological short-term memory (r = .338).
  • In regression models, reading was independently predicted by language and complex memory (Model 1: R² = .443); when mathematics was added, mathematics and language predicted reading, but complex memory did not. For mathematics, no variable was independently significant in Model 1; complex memory was significant in Model 2 (R² = .482), phonological processing in Model 3 (R² = .465), and verbal IQ and complex memory in Model 4 (R² = .495).

Methods

  • Participants were 46 children (13 girls, 33 boys) with a mean age of 9.00 years (range 6.06–11.00 years, SD = 12 months), attending state schools in Durham, North-East England. They were identified by schools as having special educational needs requiring additional support and scored below 86 on the Wechsler Objective Reading Dimension (WORD) composite; none had emotional or behavioral difficulties.
  • Children were tested individually in six sessions of up to 30 minutes across six weeks. Measures included WMTB-C complex memory (backwards digit recall, counting recall, listening recall), visuospatial short-term memory (block recall, Visual Patterns Test), phonological short-term memory (digit recall, word list recall, word list matching), Phonological Assessment Battery (rhyme, spoonerism, alliteration), WOLD language, WISC-III UK verbal and performance IQ, WORD reading/spelling/comprehension, and WOND mathematical reasoning/numerical operations.
  • Analyses used correlations and multiple regression models predicting composite reading and mathematics scores from cognitive measures.

Limitations

  • The paper states that working memory assessment depended only on verbally based methods; at the time, robust nonverbal working memory measures for children were not available, so the degree of domain generality of the working memory deficits remains an open issue.
  • The paper notes that phonological processing deficits were less marked than working memory deficits; it suggests this may reflect the age range (up to 11 years), possible reduced sensitivity of the measures, or prior UK phonological interventions.
  • Evident from the text, not stated as a limitation: the sample is small (n = 46), selected for reading disabilities, and the design is correlational, so causal direction and generalization to other populations cannot be established.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.jecp.2005.08.003

Cites

72 of 72 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 31 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § Results

    Working memory skill independently predicted the children's attainments in reading in this sample.

    “A key finding was that working memory skill independently predicted the children's attainments in reading and to a lesser extent in mathematics, and that the contribution of working memory was common to both ability domains (see also, Pickering & Gathercole, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Results

    In a regression including phonological processing and complex memory span (Model 2), complex memory was the only significant independent predictor of mathematics scores.

    “In Model 2, which incorporated phonological processing and complex memory span measures, the only significant independent predictor of mathematics scores was complex memory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Catherine Willis Anne-Marie Adams

    In the sample of 46 children with reading disabilities, performance on complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory measures was very low.

    “As a whole, the sample was characterized by deficits in complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory and by low IQ scores, whereas language, phonological short-term memory and phonological processing abilities fell in the low average range.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Very low performance was found on both complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory measures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Results

    In a multiple regression with reading as the dependent variable (Model 1), language and complex memory were significant predictors of reading scores.

    “Two measures were significant predictors of reading scores: language and complex memory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Results

    In the sample, verbal and performance IQ scores were at a low level.

    “Both verbal and performance IQ scores were at a low level across the group as a whole.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “As a group, the children had low IQ scores, but performed at even lower levels on measures of working memory (complex memory tasks) and of visuospatial short-term memory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 17
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results

    Visuospatial short-term memory scores correlated significantly only with complex memory, phonological processing, and performance IQ scores, and not with either reading or mathematics scores.

    “Although visuospatial short-term memory scores were very low within this sample, they correlated significantly only with complex memory, phonological processing, and performance IQ scores, and not with either reading or mathematics scores.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results

    Complex memory performance was significantly associated with all other measures and was the strongest predictor of mean reading and mathematics scores among the measures included.

    “Complex memory performance was significantly associated with all other measures, and was the strongest predictor of mean reading and mathematics scores of the measures included in the study.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results

    The majority of children scored in the lowest band on complex memory (61%) and visuospatial short-term memory (70%) measures.

    “These data establish that the majority of children scored in the lowest band on the complex memory and visuospatial short-term memory measures (61% and 70%, respectively), with very small proportions performing in the 85+ range that can be classified as average (9% and 4%, respectively).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Catherine Willis Anne-Marie Adams

    In the sample, language, phonological short-term memory, and phonological processing abilities fell in the low average range.

    “whereas language, phonological short-term memory and phonological processing abilities fell in the low average range.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Phonological short-term memory scores, on the other hand, fell within the low average range.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Language ability also fell in the low average range, both for the oral expression and language comprehension subtests.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results

    In a regression including phonological processing and phonological short-term memory (Model 3), phonological processing was a significant predictor of mathematics scores, and phonological short-term memory was marginally nonsignificant (p = .052).

    “In Model 3, which included the phonological processing and phonological short-term memory measures, phonological processing was a significant predictor, and phonological short-term memory was marginally nonsignificant ( p =.052).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results

    Phonological processing scores were strongly associated with complex memory scores, both IQ measures, and both reading and mathematics scores.

    “Phonological processing scores were strongly associated with complex memory scores, and also with both IQ measures and both reading and mathematics scores.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results

    When composite mathematics was added to the regression (Model 2), the independent predictors of reading ability were mathematics and language scores, but not complex memory scores.

    “The independent predictors of reading ability in this analysis were mathematics and language scores, but not complex memory scores.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results

    Language scores and verbal IQ were highly associated with one another, and both were significantly correlated with reading and mathematics scores.

    “Language scores and verbal IQ were highly associated with one another, and both were significantly correlated with reading and mathematics scores.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results

    Fluid intelligence shared no independent associations with either reading or mathematics in the present study.

    “And despite close links between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory in adult samples (Conway et al., 2003; Engle et al., 1999), fluid intelligence shared no independent associations with either reading or mathematics in the present study.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results

    The phonological awareness skills of the reading disabled children in the present study were relatively low, but the deficits were neither as extreme nor as marked as the working memory deficits.

    “Although the phonological awareness skills of the reading disabled children participating in the present study were relatively low, the deficits were neither as extreme nor as marked as the working memory deficits.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Working Memory in Children with Reading Disabilities

    In the Baddeley and Hitch working memory model, the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad correspond to two slave systems.

    “In terms of the influential working memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974), developed subsequently by Baddeley (1986, 2000), these components correspond to two slave systems: the phonological loop retains material in a phonological code that is highly susceptible to time-based decay, and the visuospatial sketchpad has limited capacities to represent information in terms of its visual and spati”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Baddeley and Hitch (1974) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Baddeley (1986, 2000)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Working Memory in Children with Reading Disabilities

    Complex memory span tasks such as listening and counting span tap both the central executive and the phonological loop.

    “Thus complex memory span such as listening and counting span appear to tap both the central executive and the phonological loop (Lobley, Gathercole, & Baddeley, in press), whereas analogous visuospatial complex memory tasks (Jarvis & Gathercole, 2003; Shah & Miyake, 1996) may draw upon the resources of the central executive and the visuospatial sketchpad.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lobley, Gathercole, & Baddeley, in press

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Working Memory in Children with Reading Disabilities

    Short-term memory is fractionated into at least two domain-specific components specialized for the retention of phonological and visuospatial material.

    “Findings from experimental, developmental, and neuropsychological studies indicate that short-term memory is fractionated into at least two domain-specific components that are specialized for the retention of phonological and visuospatial material (see Gathercole, 1999, and Vallar & Papagno, 2002, for reviews).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gathercole, 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Vallar & Papagno, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Working Memory in Children with Reading Disabilities

    Low working memory scores are strongly and specifically associated with poor computational skills and difficulties in solving mathematical problems expressed in everyday language.

    “In addition, low working memory scores have been found to be strongly and specifically associated both with poor computational skills (Wilson & Swanson, 2001) and difficulties in solving mathematical problems expressed in everyday language (Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Wilson & Swanson, 2001 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Results

    In that observational study, particularly high rates of failure were found in following complex instructions, performing tasks that imposed significant storage and processing loads, and tasks with a complex hierarchical structure.

    “Particularly high rates of failure were found in following complex instructions (which the child often forgot), performing tasks that imposed significant storage and processing loads, and in tasks with a complex hierarchical structure (in which the child often lost their place, and eventually abandoned prior to completion).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Results

    Effective management of working memory loads in structured learning activities may ameliorate the problems of learning that are associated with impairments of working memory.

    “suggest that effective management of working memory loads in structured learning activities may ameliorate the problems of learning that are associated with impairments of working memory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Results

    The association between working memory and severity of deficits in reading and mathematics arises because working memory acts as a bottleneck for learning in classroom activities.

    “We propose that this association arizes because working memory acts as a bottleneck for learning in classroom activities”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Results

    Impairments of working memory result in pervasive learning difficulties because this system acts as a bottleneck for learning in many of the individual learning episodes required to increment the acquisition of knowledge.

    “A related view that we favor is that impairments of working memory result in pervasive learning difficulties because this system acts as a bottleneck for learning in many of the individual learning episodes required to increment the acquisition of knowledge (Gathercole, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gathercole, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Working Memory in Children with Reading Disabilities

    Mathematical difficulties commonly accompany reading disabilities.

    “Mathematical difficulties commonly accompany reading disabilities (Swanson & Saez, 2003), and are also characterized by deficits in working memory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Swanson & Saez, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data
    § Results

    In that observational study, children were working in the lowest ability groups in both literacy and mathematics and were observed to make frequent errors in activities that placed heavy demands on working memory.

    “The children were working in the lowest ability groups in both literacy and mathematics within their classrooms, and were observed to make frequent errors in activities that placed heavy demands on working memory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gathercole, Lamont, & Alloway, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Results

    It is likely that these children received specific interventions targeting phonological skills that may have remediated any deficits in this area.

    “it is likely that these children will have received specific interventions targeting phonological skills that may have remediated any deficits in this area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Working Memory in Children with Reading Disabilities

    In a recent study (Pickering & Gathercole, 2004), children classified as having problems in both reading and mathematics had depressed performance on complex memory tasks, but individuals with difficulties restricted to reading did not.

    “In a recent study of working memory in children with learning disabilities (Pickering & Gathercole, 2004), we found that children classified by their schools as having problems in both reading and mathematics had depressed performance on complex memory tasks, but that individuals with difficulties restricted to reading did not.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pickering & Gathercole, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Results

    The finding that phonological processing skills fell within the average range may reflect the age range of the group, which included children as old as 11 years, because in most typically developing children of this age phonological processing skills are complete, so the measures may lack some sensitivity.

    “This finding may reflect the age range of the group, which included children as old as 11 years; in most typically developing children of this age, phonological processing skills are complete by this point so the measures may lack some sensitivity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Results

    These difficulties will lead to frequent task failures, which represent missed opportunities to learn and so to achieve normal incremental progress in complex skill domains.

    “This will lead to frequent task failures, which represent missed opportunities to learn and so to achieve normal incremental progress in complex skill domains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Results

    Promoting teacher awareness of working memory loads in classroom activities and effective management of these loads for children with impairments of working memory should boost their learning.

    “It predicts that promoting teacher awareness of working memory loads in classroom activities and effective management of these loads for children with impairments of working memory should boost their learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
25 of 25

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Complex memory tasks tap working memory.

    “As the present research is not concerned specifically with distinctions between models, the theoretically neutral terms phonological and visuospatial short-term memory will be used to refer to storage-only assessments of the respective informational domains, and complex memory tasks will be interpreted as tapping working memory.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The degree to which working memory deficits specifically constrain learning progress within children with recognized learning disabilities is less well understood.

    “Although close links between memory function and individual variation in a range of aspects of learning and academic achievement in unselected samples of children are well established, the degree to which working memory deficits specifically constrain learning progress within children with recognized learning disabilities is less well understood.”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Children suffering from developmental disorders or learning disabilities often display specific EF deficits, suggesting these deficits are risk factors for poor academic performance and development.

    “children suffering from developmental disorders or learning disabilities often display specific EF deficits, suggesting these deficits are risk factors for poor academic performance and development (e.g., Barkley, 1997; Gathercole et al., 2006; Schuchardt et al., 2008”

    From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Gathercole et al., 2006

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(5, 40) = 6.375reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(5,40)=6.375, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(6, 39) = 6.481reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(6,39)=6.481, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(5, 40) = 6.965reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(5,40)=6.965, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(6, 39) = 6.824reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(6,39)=6.824, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(5, 40) = 7.499reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(5,40)=7.499, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(5, 40) = 7.829reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(5,40)=7.829, p < .001”

6 of 6

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Performance IQ t statistic does not match its coefficient and standard error

    Minor

    In Table 6, Model 4, dividing the Performance IQ coefficient of −0.020 by its standard error of 0.131 gives approximately −0.153, not the reported t of −0.882.

    Reported -0.882 · recomputed -0.152672

  • Reported percentages use a higher cutoff than the stated 85+ range

    Minor

    Table 3 gives cumulative proportions through the 81-85 band of 0.78 for complex memory and 0.87 for visuospatial STM. Thus 22% and 13%, respectively, scored above 85-not the stated 9% and 4%.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Lobley, 2005, Is there a role for the phonological loop in verbal complex span?, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58A, 1
  2. Vallar, G., & Papagno, C. (2002). Neuropsychological impairments of verbal short-term memory. In A. D. Baddeley, M. D. Kopelman, & B. A. Wilson (Eds.), Handbook of memory disorders (2nd ed., pp. 249–270). New York: John Wiley.
  3. Wagner, R. K., & Muse. A. (in press). Working memory deficits in developmental dyslexia. In T. P. Alloway & S. E. Gathercole (Eds.), Working memory in neurodevelopmental conditions. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

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Related

Authors
Gathercole, S. E., Alloway, T. P., Willis, C., & Adams, A.-M.
Affiliations
  • Durham University (GB)
  • Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
Corresponding author
Gathercole, Susan Elizabeth
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2006-03
Volume
93
Issue
3
Pages
265-281
ISSN
0022-0965 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.jecp.2005.08.003
OpenAlex
W2133978923
Semantic Scholar
4967bfaabe86456c103c4e6416d600fccbf3012d
Cited by
795
References
66
Citations by year
2026: 13 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 54
FWCI
30.35
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Keywords
working memory, reading disorders, dyslexia, short-term memory, phonological awareness, phonological working memory, fluid intelligence, verbal ability, mathematical ability, reading skills, children, low IQ, visuospatial memory, language skills
MeSH terms
Aptitude, Awareness, Child, Discrimination Learning, Dyslexia, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Language Development Disorders, Male, Mathematics, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Phonetics, Problem Solving, Reading, Mental Recall, Statistics as Topic, Verbal Learning, Comprehension

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

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