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How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes
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“The reciprocation of positive exchanges with a leader builds trust. In contrast, if a leader engages in abusive behaviour, it will inevitably reduce followers' trust in leaders. Thus, in accordance with SET, trust decreases over time as a result of unfavourable exchanges with a leader. Abusive supervision represents unpleasant behaviours that can be predicted to contribute to feelings of distrust”
From A meta-analysis of the role of trust in the leadership- performance relationship (2021) · cites this paper as Schyns & Schilling (2013)
In the citing paper
“researchers have argued that follower perceptions are critical to include in measures of abusive supervision because leader behavior can only have an effect on followers if it is also perceived by them (Schyns and Schilling, 2013).”
From Narcissistic Leaders and Their Victims: Followers Low on Self-Esteem and Low on Core Self-Evaluations Suffer Most (2018) · cites this paper as Schyns and Schilling, 2013
In the citing paper
“On the other hand, the lack of a clear leadership approach or a wrong management style can de-motivate employees, kill productivity, and lead to disengagement and turnover (Catteeuw et al., 2007;Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
From Servant Leadership and Employee Engagement: A Qualitative Study (2022) · cites this paper as Schyns & Schilling, 2013
In the citing paper
“Destructive leadership is defined as voluntary, repeated, and hostile behaviors targeted at followers to harm them and/or the organization (Krasikova et al., 2013; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
From The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions (2025) · cites this paper as Schyns & Schilling, 2013
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“To illustrate, consider the consequences when a destructive leader (Schyns & Schilling, 2013) engages in abusive supervision (Mackey et al., in press; Tepper, 2007) or interpersonal injustice (Bies, 2001; 2005; 2015).”
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“The most closely related meta-analysis to ours is that of Schyns and Schilling. Their metaanalysis of destructive leadership was leader focused and assessed multiple forms of destructive leadership (e.g., abusive supervision, negative leadership, toxic leadership), whereas our meta-analysis of abusive supervision is s…”
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“For example, a recent meta-analysis of destructive leadership (Schyns & Schilling, 2013) found a fairly robust relationship between abusive supervision and follower stress (r = 0.31) on the basis of 12 studies.”
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“…leadership: destructive and authoritarian Typically, leadership research has focused on finding the most effective leadership methods and has focused on positive forms of leadership (Schyns & Schilling, 2013), perhaps to the detriment of our understanding of ineffective or negative leadership.”
BackgroundEthical leadership: Meta-analytic evidence of criterion-related and incremental validity.
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038246 · Cited by 377
“Destructive leadership refers to leader behaviors that stifle the professional growth and development of followers or even hurt their well-being (Schyns & Schilling, 2013), such as being autocratic, despotic, or abusive.”
Sonnentag, S. (2018) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2018.11.002 · Cited by 484
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Zhang, Y., & Bednall, T. C. (2015) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2657-6 · Cited by 299
“A recent meta-analysis summarized the research findings on the consequences of abusive supervision (Schyns and Schilling 2013).1 However, a meta-analytic review of the & Yucheng Zhang yucheng.eason.zhang@gmail.com Timothy C. Bednall tbednall@swin.edu.au 1 Research Institute of Economics and…”
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“For example, it would be important to find out what the role of certain dark personality traits (O’Boyle et al., 2012) or destructive leadership (Schyns and Schilling, 2013) would be on the career development of individuals.”
BackgroundWell-being and HRM in the changing workplace
Kowalski, T., & Loretto, W. (2017) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2017.1345205 · Cited by 329
“In addition to long standing risk factors such as high workload, newer challenges have also emerged for example, of destructive/toxic leadership (e.g. Schyns and Schilling, 2013; Boddy, 2011), bullying (Woodrow and Guest, 2014) and cyber bullying (Coyne et al, 2016).”
BackgroundCohen, A. G. (2015) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2015.07.003 · Cited by 247
“Aggression (Berry, Sackett, & Tobares, 2010) and workplace harassment (Bowling & Beehr, 2006) were also found to be moderately related to CWBs. Finally, Schyns and Schilling (2013), in their meta-analysis, found quite a strong relationship between CWBs and destructive leadership.”
BackgroundShedding Light on Leaders’ Self-Interest: Theory and Measurement of Exploitative Leadership
Schmid, E. A., Verdorfer, A. P., & Peus, C. V. (2017) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206317707810 · Cited by 266
Kaluza, A. J., Boer, D., Buengeler, C., & van Dick, R. (2019) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678373.2019.1617369 · Cited by 283
“While the attention in leadership research has recently shifted towards dark sides of leadership and follower outcomes (e.g. Schyns & Schilling, 2013), the implications of such leadership for leaders themselves, especially their well-being, have been studied less systematically.”
BackgroundSchermuly, C. C., & Meyer, B. M. (2015) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2060 · Cited by 219
A meta-analysis of the role of trust in the leadership- performance relationship
Legood, A., van der Werff, L., Lee, A., & Den Hartog, D. (2021) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2020.1819241 · Cited by 241
Abusive Supervision Through the Lens of Employee State Paranoia
Chan, M. E., & McAllister, D. J. (2013) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2011.0419 · Cited by 207
“This is precisely the finding of one recent meta-analysis of research concerning abusive supervision and damaging leadership (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
ResultAutocratic leaders and authoritarian followers revisited: A review and agenda for the future
Harms, P. D., Wood, D., Landay, K., Lester, P. B., & Lester, G. V. (2017) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.12.007 · Cited by 230
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“, hostility, coercion, theft, corruption) believed to be associated with negative consequences for followers and/or the organization (e.g., Einarsen et al. 2007; Ferris et al. 2007; Krasikova et al. 2013; Shaw et al. 2011; Schyns and Schilling 2013).”
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Yam, K. C., Fehr, R., Keng, F. T., Klotz, A. C., & Reynolds, S. J. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000043 · Cited by 183
“Given numerous negative consequences of abusive supervision (Schyns & Schilling, 2013; Tepper, 2007) and the documented ineffectiveness of surface acting (Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011), organizations might even benefit from explicitly discouraging surface acting.”
BackgroundBreevaart, K., & Zacher, H. (2019) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12253 · Cited by 230
“Yet, some researchers wonder whether it is appropriate to categorize laissez-faire leadership as a form of destructive leadership (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
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Walter, F. H., Lam, C. K., van der Vegt, G. S., Huang, X., & Miao, Q. (2015) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038513 · Cited by 179
“…have shown that such behavior imposes severe psychological costs on subordinates, including reduced job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and well-being as well as increased psychological distress (for recent reviews, see Martinko, Harvey, Brees, & Mackey, 2013; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
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“According to Schyns and Schilling (2013), ‘‘followers might shy away from direct resistance to avoid further destructive leadership behavior and a spiral of abuse’’ (p. 149).”
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“Nonetheless, despite the low intent to cause harm, the potential harmfulness of their actions (or inactions) is evident (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
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Defeating abusive supervision: Training supervisors to support subordinates.
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“…(DeRue et al., 2011; Judge et al., 2004; Lambert et al., 2012; Oldham & Cummings, 1996) and, more generally, destructive leadership-subordinate outcome correlations are largely negative and opposite in direction to constructive leadership-outcome correlations (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundResultBarling, J., & Frone, M. R. (2017) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.2697 · Cited by 130
“Stress and Health (2016) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. harm the organization or its employees (e.g. Kelloway et al., 2005; Krasikova, Green & LeBreton, 2013; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
Sendjaya, S., Pekerti, A., Härtel, C. E. J., Hirst, G., & Butarbutar, I. (2014) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-014-2351-0 · Cited by 145
“This is also an area of ripe for further investigation, particularly since little is known about when and how Machiavellianism impacts performance at the organizational, team, and individual levels (Schyns and Schilling 2012).”
BackgroundLeader Behavior as a Determinant of Health at Work: Specification and Evidence of Five Key Pathways
Wegge, J., Shemla, M., & Haslam, S. A. (2014) · German Journal of Human Resource Management Zeitschrift für Personalforschung · doi:10.1177/239700221402800102 · Cited by 132
“Extending the arguments of DeRue et al. (2011), in this category we also consider destructive leadership behavior – for example, as witnessed in the form of abusive or toxic supervision (see Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundResultChiang, J. T., Chen, X.-P., Liu, H., Akutsu, S., & Wang, Z. (2020) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726720908649 · Cited by 137
“However, recent research postulates that they are distinct because, unlike authoritarian leadership, autocratic leadership is often not considered destructive or on the “dark-side” of leadership (Dotlich and Cairo, 2003; Harms et al., 2018; Krasikova et al., 2013; Schyns and Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundMatos, K., O’Neill, O. A., & Lei, X. (2018) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12284 · Cited by 154
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Han, G. H., Harms, P. D., & Bai, Y. (2015) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2859-y · Cited by 135
Different Shades—Different Effects? Consequences of Different Types of Destructive Leadership
Schmid, E. A., Verdorfer, A. P., & Peus, C. V. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01289 · Cited by 143
“This distinction is well established and commonly used when it Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 July 2018 | Volume 9 | Article 1289 comes to organizing empirical evidence on destructive leadership (Aasland et al., 2010; Thoroughgood et al., 2012; Schyns and Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe context deficit in leadership research
Johns, G. (2023) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2023.101755 · Cited by 134
McClean, S. T., Barnes, C. M., Courtright, S. H., & Johnson, R. E. (2019) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2017.0081 · Cited by 132
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“Positive leadership behaviour is related to higher levels of follower health, whereas negative leadership behaviour is related to lower levels of follower health (Schyns and Schilling, 2013; Skakon et al., 2010).”
BackgroundSuifan, T. S., Diab, H., Alhyari, S., & Sweis, R. J. (2020) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2019.1690611 · Cited by 129
“…leadership styles (transactional, transformational, etc.) have been sufficiently investigated in the literature (e.g., Hughes, Avey, & Nixon, 2010; Schyns & Schilling, 2013), ethical leadership’s influence on turnover intention still remains ambiguous with only a few studies empirically testing…”
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Backhaus, L., & Vogel, R. (2022) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.13516 · Cited by 146
Abusive Supervision and Employee Deviance: A Multifoci Justice Perspective
Park, H., Hoobler, J. M., Wu, J., Liden, R. C., Hu, J. J., & Wilson, M. S. (2017) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-017-3749-2 · Cited by 130
“Departing from the traditional emphasis of positive leadership, recently scholars have sought to document the detrimental effects of the “dark side” of leadership on employee outcomes (for a review see Schyns and Schilling 2013).”
Roles of gender and identification on abusive supervision and proactive behavior
Ouyang, K., Lam, W., & Wang, W. (2015) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-015-9410-7 · Cited by 117
“…disrespectful way by their supervisors, their need for esteem as individuals cannot be fulfilled, which makes them less willing to dedicate themselves to their work and reduces their sense of belonging to the organization (e.g., Amabile, Schatzel, Moneta, & Kramer, 2004; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundLam, C. K., Walter, F. H., & Huang, X. (2017) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2193 · Cited by 126
Toward a Better Understanding of Behavioral Ethics in the Workplace
Cremer, D. D., & Moore, C. (2019) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012218-015151 · Cited by 125
“Ethical leadership also shares conceptual ground with abusive supervision (Mackey et al. 2015) and destructive leadership (Schyns & Schilling 2013), and the constructs share similar correlates.”
BackgroundNevicka, B., De Hoogh, A. H. B., Den Hartog, D. N., & Belschak, F. D. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00422 · Cited by 113
“…have many detrimental consequences for followers, such as psychological distress (e.g., strain, emotional exhaustion, and depression), lower family wellbeing, and higher turnover intentions (Tepper, 2000, 2007; Aryee et al., 2008; Wu and Hu, 2009; Carlson et al., 2012; Schyns and Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundHauff, S., Felfe, J., & Klug, K. (2020) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2020.1841819 · Cited by 113
“Further, concerning HR practices and leader behaviors, it may be more relevant how employees perceive their situations for their well-being than objective conditions (Han et al., 2019; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundReina, C. S., Rogers, K. M., Peterson, S. J., Byron, K., & Hom, P. W. (2017) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051817709007 · Cited by 112
“…thought (T. B. Harris, Li, & Kirkman, 2014), which further emphasizes the need to take specific leader behaviors into account to understand their impact on follower outcomes such as turnover (e.g., see Schyns & Schilling, 2013, for a meta-analysis on outcomes of destructive leader behaviors).”
BackgroundCollins, M. D., & Jackson, C. J. (2015) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.02.005 · Cited by 112
“There are good reasons for this shift in focus, as mounting evidence suggests that destructive leadership harms themental and physical health of employees and degrades organizational performance (Aasland et al., 2010; Hershcovis & Rafferty, 2012; Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundTuma, T. T., Adams, J. D., Hultquist, B. C., & Dolan, E. L. (2021) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.20-10-0231 · Cited by 118
Skogstad, A., Aasland, M. S., Nielsen, M. B., Hetland, J., Matthiesen, S. B., & Einarsen, S. V. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000189 · Cited by 115
Toxic leadership: emotional distress and coping strategy
Bhandarker, A., & Rai, S. (2019) · International Journal of Organization Theory and Behavior · doi:10.1108/ijotb-03-2018-0027 · Cited by 106
The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions
Liden, R. C., Wang, X., & Wang, Y. (2025) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.115036 · Cited by 107
Is Transformational Leadership Healthy for Employees? A Multilevel Analysis in 16 Nations
Zwingmann, I., Wegge, J., Wolf, S., Rudolf, M., Schmidt, M., & Richter, P. (2014) · German Journal of Human Resource Management Zeitschrift für Personalforschung · doi:10.1177/239700221402800103 · Cited by 104
“Thus, in line with the findings of the recent meta-analysis regarding negative effects of destructive forms of leadership (Schyns & Schilling, 2013), it can be expected that laissez faire leadership often leads to conflicts that, in turn, hamper employees’ health.”
ResultNauman, S., Zheng, C. S.-M., & Basit, A. A. (2020) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/lodj-11-2019-0476 · Cited by 114
Diebig, M., Bormann, K. C., & Rowold, J. (2016) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.04.001 · Cited by 101
Zombie leadership: Dead ideas that still walk among us
Haslam, S. A., Alvesson, M., & Reicher, S. D. (2024) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2023.101770 · Cited by 100
Robert, V., & Vandenberghe, C. (2020) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-020-09700-9 · Cited by 158
Erickson, A., Shaw, B., Murray, J., & Branch, S. (2015) · Organizational Dynamics · doi:10.1016/j.orgdyn.2015.09.003 · Cited by 98
An eye for an eye? A meta-analysis of negative reciprocity in organizations.
Greco, L., Whitson, J., O’Boyle, E. H., Wang, C. S., & Kim, J. (2019) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000396 · Cited by 110
“…xppws S 1 1/31/19 10:07 Art: 2017-3602 APA NLM kowski, & Bravo, 2007), abusive supervision (Mackey et al., 2017; Schyns & Schilling, 2013), and counterproductive work behavior (i.e., Berry, Lelchook, & Clark, 2012; Berry et al., 2007; Dalal, 2005; Hershcovis et…”
BackgroundOutcomes of ethical leadership among salespeople
DeConinck, J. B. (2014) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.10.011 · Cited by 114
Steffens, N. K., Yang, J., Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., & Lipponen, J. (2017) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000090 · Cited by 114
Servant Leadership and Employee Engagement: A Qualitative Study
Canavesi, A., & Minelli, E. (2022) · Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal · doi:10.1007/s10672-021-09389-9 · Cited by 95
Knowledge Sharing, Abusive Supervision, and Support
Kim, S. L., Kim, M., & Yun, S. (2015) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601115577514 · Cited by 97
“Although both these types of leader behaviors bring harmful results, such as low satisfaction and poor employee performance, the consequences of abusive supervision are much more severe than those of laissez-faire supervision (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).”
BackgroundAlbashiti, B., Hamid, Z., & Aboramadan, M. (2021) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-03-2021-0394 · Cited by 93
Wang, G., Van Iddekinge, C. H., Zhang, L., & Bishoff, J. (2019) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000345 · Cited by 92
Gerhardt, C., Semmer, N. K., Sauter, S., Walker, A., de Wijn, A. N., Kälin, W., Kottwitz, M. U., Kersten, B., Ulrich, B., & Elfering, A. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10894-7 · Cited by 98
“One approach focuses on specific types of social stressors such as bullying [22] or abusive supervision [23, 24]; for an overview see [25].”
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Workplace incivility as a moderator of the relationships between polychronicity and job outcomes
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“Destructive leadership behavior is negatively associated with well-being (Schyns and Schilling 2013), and a lack of supportive leadership decreased self-rated health in men even ten years later (Schmidt et al.”
BackgroundWang, R., & Jiang, J. (2014) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2014.990410 · Cited by 94
Nauman, S., Fatima, T., & Haq, I. U. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00601 · Cited by 95
“…the negative aspects of leadership are a matter of grave concern for organizations (Hoobler and Hu, 2013) and further investigation is needed (Schyns and Schilling, 2013; Collins and Jackson, 2015) into what causes destructive leadership and how its negative aspects affect subordinates’…”
BackgroundMackey, J. D., McAllister, C. P., Maher, L. P., & Wang, G. A. (2018) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12286 · Cited by 102
Mackey, J. D., Huang, L. V., & He, W. (2018) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-018-4024-x · Cited by 97
Time-related work stress and counterproductive work behavior
Clercq, D. D., Haq, I. U., & Azeem, M. U. (2019) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-07-2018-0241 · Cited by 93
“Previous research indicates that destructive leadership styles might prompt employees to undertake negative work behaviours too, in response to their adverse treatment (Schyns and Schilling, 2013), so this study also controlled for employees’ beliefs that their leader has despotic tendencies with a six-item scale (De…”
BackgroundInfluentialWhen Employees Retaliate Against Self-Serving Leaders: The Influence of the Ethical Climate
Decoster, S., Stouten, J., & Tripp, T. M. (2019) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-019-04218-4 · Cited by 97
Molino, M., Cortese, C. G., & Ghislieri, C. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su11020446 · Cited by 83
“Considering the role of managers and supervisors, this study investigated the dark side of leadership and its consequences for followers [27,28].”
BackgroundOrganisational psychopaths: a ten year update
Boddy, C. R. (2015) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/md-04-2015-0114 · Cited by 86
Zu Risiken und Nebenwirkungen lesen Sie …–Negative Effekte von Coaching
Schermuly, C. C., Haupt, M.-L., Schölmerich, F., & Rauterberg, H. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A&O · doi:10.1026/0932-4089/a000129 · Cited by 85
Chiaburu, D. S., Smith, T. A., Wang, J., & Zimmerman, R. D. (2014) · Journal of Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1027/1866-5888/a000105 · Cited by 95
Metadata
- Authors
- Schyns, B., & Schilling, J.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- Hochschule Hannover (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Schyns, Birgit
- Venue
- The Leadership Quarterly
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-02
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 138-158
- ISSN
- 1048-9843 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2013875734
- Cited by
- 1,245
- References
- 120
- Citations by year
- 2026: 113 · 2025: 113 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 136 · 2022: 126 · 2021: 143 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 105 · 2018: 87 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 49 · 2015: 46 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 14
- FWCI
- 6.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- The Leadership Quarterly (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Job Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Workplace Violence and Bullying
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Employee Performance and Leadership
- Keywords
- destructive leadership, constructive leadership, leader attitudes, counterproductive work behavior, turnover intention, employee well-being, individual performance, follower outcomes
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