The occurrence, distribution, and risks of PFAS at AFFF-impacted sites in Finland
Open accessAbstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) comprise a wide group of persistent chemicals, whose ubiquitous occurrence in the environment, particularly due to their extensive use for fire suppression in aqueous film forming foams (AFFFs), has raised global attention. We evaluated the impacts of PFAS at three firefighting training sites and one industrial site in Finland, to highlight key elements to be considered in the retrospective risk assessment of these chemicals. The site assessments covered the occurrence and distribution of 23 PFAS in multiple environmental matrices, i.e., soil, sediment, surface water, groundwater, and biota, and the subsequent risks to human health and the environment owing to the migration of and exposure to the selected compounds. Our study showed that the extensive use of nowadays restricted or substituted PFAS, particularly PFOS, are still often the predominant compounds detected at AFFF-impacted sites and will continue to cause long-term risks to the environment. The most significant environmental or health risks at these sites are likely to concern aquatic ecosystems, fish consumption or groundwater usage due to the off-site migration of PFAS. Here, even a single fire extinguishing event can be a considerable contributor. We also illustrate that conventional procedures based on simple mass-balance, and exposure models, with a focus on PFOS and other site-specifically relevant PFAS may provide sufficient means to assess the risks. Moreover, we address that despite the exceedance of the very stringent regulatory threshold values issued recently for PFAS, the actual site-specific risks to human health and the environment may remain reasonably low.
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Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) formulations used by the military include PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, PFBS, and PFDS, along with fluorotelomer sulfonates that break down into long-chain PFCAs like PFDA and PFUnDA.
“Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) formulations used by the military are known to include PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, PFBS, and PFDS, along with fluorotelomer sulfonates that break down into long-chain PFCAs like PFDA and PFUnDA [70].”
Adamson et al. (2020) and Reinikainen et al. (2022) reported total PFAS discharge in groundwater near different FTA source zones was 9.9 and 0.24 g per day (g/day), respectively.
“Adamson et al. (2020) and Reinikainen et al. (2022) reported total PFAS discharge in groundwater near different FTA source zones was 9.9 and 0.24 g per day (g/day), respectively.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) mass flux and mass balance at an aqueous film-forming foam release site in semiarid eastern New Mexico, USA (2025) · cites this paper as Reinikainen et al., 2022
At CAFB, PFAS discharge in groundwater is comparable to groundwater PFAS discharge documented at other AFFF sites.
“At CAFB, PFAS discharge in groundwater is comparable to groundwater PFAS discharge documented at other AFFF sites.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) mass flux and mass balance at an aqueous film-forming foam release site in semiarid eastern New Mexico, USA (2025) · cites this paper as Reinikainen et al., 2022
Roadside and urban ditches may receive a toxic mix of runoff that includes heavy metals, PAHs, tire materials, pesticides, exhaust emissions, nutrients, road salt, and PFAS.
“Roadside (Fig. 1E) and urban ditches (Fig. 1A), in particular, may receive a toxic mix of runoff that includes heavy metals, PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), tire materials, pesticides, exhaust emissions, nutrients, road salt, and Per-and PFAS (polyfluoroalkyl substances-so called”
From Lines in the landscape (2025) · cites this paper as [159]
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- Authors
- Reinikainen, J., Perkola, N., Äystö, L., & Sorvari, J.
- Affiliations
- Finnish Environment Institute (FI)
- Corresponding author
- Reinikainen, Jussi
- Venue
- Science of The Total Environment
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-07
- Volume
- 829
- Pages
- 154237
- ISSN
- 0048-9697 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4221102463
- Cited by
- 142
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 2
- FWCI
- 8.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Science of The Total Environment (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Ympäristöministeriö
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pesticide and Herbicide Environmental Studies
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, aqueous film-forming foam, PFOS, environmental contamination, groundwater contamination, aquatic ecosystems, fish consumption risk, exposure assessment, mass balance, Finland
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Finland, Fluorocarbons, Retrospective Studies, Water, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Ecosystem
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