Cancer Stem Cells: Current Status and Evolving Complexities

The Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Generates Cells with Properties of Stem Cells

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Identification of human brain tumour initiating cells

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The Clonal Evolution of Tumor Cell Populations: Acquired genetic lability permits stepwise selection of variant sublines and underlies tumor progression.

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Human acute myeloid leukemia is organized as a hierarchy that originates from a primitive hematopoietic cell

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A cell initiating human acute myeloid leukaemia after transplantation into SCID mice

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ALDH1 Is a Marker of Normal and Malignant Human Mammary Stem Cells and a Predictor of Poor Clinical Outcome

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Cancer stem cells in solid tumours: accumulating evidence and unresolved questions

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Distinct Populations of Cancer Stem Cells Determine Tumor Growth and Metastatic Activity in Human Pancreatic Cancer

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The Genomic Landscapes of Human Breast and Colorectal Cancers

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A Chromatin-Mediated Reversible Drug-Tolerant State in Cancer Cell Subpopulations

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Association of reactive oxygen species levels and radioresistance in cancer stem cells

Diehn, M., Cho, R. W., Lobo, N. A., Kalisky, T., Dorie, M. J., Kulp, A. N., Qian, D., Lam, J. S., Ailles, L. E., Wong, M., et al. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature07733 · Cited by 2,555

Identification of Selective Inhibitors of Cancer Stem Cells by High-Throughput Screening

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Phenotypic characterization of human colorectal cancer stem cells

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let-7 Regulates Self Renewal and Tumorigenicity of Breast Cancer Cells

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Wnt activity defines colon cancer stem cells and is regulated by the microenvironment

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Efficient tumour formation by single human melanoma cells

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Intrinsic Resistance of Tumorigenic Breast Cancer Cells to Chemotherapy

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Transformation from committed progenitor to leukaemia stem cell initiated by MLL–AF9

Krivtsov, A. V., Twomey, D., Feng, Z., Stubbs, M. C., Wang, Y., Faber, J., Levine, J. E., Wang, J., Hahn, W. C., Gilliland, D. G., et al. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04980 · Cited by 1,513

Granulocyte-macrophage progenitors as candidate leukemic stem cells in blast-crisis CML

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Stochastic State Transitions Give Rise to Phenotypic Equilibrium in Populations of Cancer Cells

Gupta, P. B., Fillmore, C. M., Jiang, G., Shapira, S. D., Tao, K., Kuperwasser, C., & Lander, E. S. (2011) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.07.026 · Cited by 1,475

Residual breast cancers after conventional therapy display mesenchymal as well as tumor-initiating features

Creighton, C. J., Li, X., Landis, M., Dixon, J. M., Neumeister, V. M., Sjolund, A., Rimm, D. L., Wong, H., Rodriguez, A., Herschkowitz, J. I., et al. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0905718106 · Cited by 1,412

The microRNA miR-34a inhibits prostate cancer stem cells and metastasis by directly repressing CD44

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The Hippo transducer TAZ confers cancer stem cell-related traits on breast cancer cells

Cordenonsi, M., Zanconato, F., Azzolin, L., Forcato, M., Rosato, A., Frasson, C., Inui, M., Montagner, M., Parenti, A. R., Poletti, A., et al. (2011) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.09.048 · Cited by 1,381

Tumour vascularization via endothelial differentiation of glioblastoma stem-like cells

Ricci-Vitiani, L., Pallini, R., Biffoni, M., Todaro, M., Invernici, G., Cenci, T., Maira, G., Parati, E. A., Stassi, G., Larocca, L. M., et al. (2010) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09557 · Cited by 1,379

Hypoxia-inducible factors regulate tumorigenic capacity of glioma stem cells

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Interactions between cancer stem cells and their niche govern metastatic colonization

Malanchi, I., Santamaria-Martínez, A., Susanto, E., Peng, H., Lehr, H.-A., Delaloye, J.-F., & Huelsken, J. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10694 · Cited by 1,339

Targeting of CD44 eradicates human acute myeloid leukemic stem cells

Jin, L., Hope, K. J., Zhai, Q., Smadja-Joffe, F., & Dick, J. E. (2006) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm1483 · Cited by 1,219

Glioblastoma stem-like cells give rise to tumour endothelium

Wang, R., Chadalavada, K., Wilshire, J., Kowalik, U., Hovinga, K. E., Geber, A., Fligelman, B., Leversha, M., Brennan, C., & Tabar, V. (2010) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09624 · Cited by 1,203

Bone morphogenetic proteins inhibit the tumorigenic potential of human brain tumour-initiating cells

Piccirillo, S. G. M., Reynolds, B. A., Zanetti, N., Lamorte, G., Binda, E., Broggi, G., Brem, H., Olivi, A., Dimeco, F., & Vescovi, A. L. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature05349 · Cited by 1,176

A Temporarily Distinct Subpopulation of Slow-Cycling Melanoma Cells Is Required for Continuous Tumor Growth

Roesch, A., Fukunaga-Kalabis, M., Schmidt, E. C., Zabierowski, S. E., Brafford, P. A., Vultur, A., Basu, D., Gimotty, P., Vogt, T., & Herlyn, M. (2010) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.04.020 · Cited by 1,158

Normal and neoplastic nonstem cells can spontaneously convert to a stem-like state

Chaffer, C. L., Brueckmann, I., Scheel, C., Kaestli, A. J., Wiggins, P. A., Rodrigues, L. O., Brooks, M., Reinhardt, F., Su, Y., Polyak, K., et al. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1102454108 · Cited by 1,147

Bone progenitor dysfunction induces myelodysplasia and secondary leukaemia

Raaijmakers, M. H. G. P., Mukherjee, S., Guo, S., Zhang, S., Kobayashi, T., Schoonmaker, J. A., Ebert, B. L., Al-Shahrour, F., Hasserjian, R. P., Scadden, E. O., et al. (2010) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08851 · Cited by 1,115

Stem cell gene expression programs influence clinical outcome in human leukemia

Eppert, K., Takenaka, K., Lechman, E. R., Waldron, L., Nilsson, B., van Galen, P., Metzeler, K. H., Poeppl, A., Ling, V., Beyene, J., et al. (2011) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.2415 · Cited by 1,041

Biological and Molecular Heterogeneity of Breast Cancers Correlates with Their Cancer Stem Cell Content

Pece, S., Tosoni, D., Confalonieri, S., Mazzarol, G., Vecchi, M., Ronzoni, S., Bernard, L., Viale, G., Pelicci, P. G., & Di Fiore, P. P. (2010) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.12.007 · Cited by 947

The Intestinal Stem Cell Signature Identifies Colorectal Cancer Stem Cells and Predicts Disease Relapse

Merlos-Suárez, A., Barriga, F. M., Jung, P., Iglesias, M., Céspedes, M. V., Rossell, D., Sevillano, M., Hernando-Momblona, X., da Silva-Diz, V., Muñoz, P., et al. (2011) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2011.02.020 · Cited by 934

Hedgehog signalling is essential for maintenance of cancer stem cells in myeloid leukaemia

Zhao, C., Chen, A., Jamieson, C. H., Fereshteh, M., Abrahamsson, A., Blum, J., Kwon, H. Y., Kim, J., Chute, J. P., Rizzieri, D., et al. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature07737 · Cited by 869

The hypoxic microenvironment maintains glioblastoma stem cells and promotes reprogramming towards a cancer stem cell phenotype

Heddleston, J. M., Li, Z., McLendon, R. E., Hjelmeland, A. B., & Rich, J. N. (2009) · Cell Cycle · doi:10.4161/cc.8.20.9701 · Cited by 813

Genetic variegation of clonal architecture and propagating cells in leukaemia

Anderson, K., Lutz, C., van Delft, F. W., Bateman, C. M., Guo, Y., Colman, S. M., Kempski, H., Moorman, A. V., Titley, I., Swansbury, J., et al. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09650 · Cited by 806

The Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway Is Required for the Development of Leukemia Stem Cells in AML

Wang, Y., Krivtsov, A. V., Sinha, A. U., North, T. E., Goessling, W., Feng, Z., Zon, L. I., & Armstrong, S. A. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1186624 · Cited by 763

CXCR1 blockade selectively targets human breast cancer stem cells in vitro and in xenografts

Ginestier, C., Liu, S., Diebel, M. E., Korkaya, H., Luo, M., Brown, M., Wicinski, J., Cabaud, O., Charafe-Jauffret, E., Birnbaum, D., et al. (2010) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci39397 · Cited by 747

Module Map of Stem Cell Genes Guides Creation of Epithelial Cancer Stem Cells

Wong, D. J., Liu, H., Ridky, T. W., Cassarino, D., Segal, E., & Chang, H. Y. (2008) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2008.02.009 · Cited by 720

Human melanoma-initiating cells express neural crest nerve growth factor receptor CD271

Boiko, A. D., Razorenova, O. V., van de Rijn, M., Swetter, S. M., Johnson, D. L., Ly, D. P., Butler, P. D., Yang, G. P., Joshua, B., Kaplan, M. J., et al. (2010) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09161 · Cited by 720

Making a tumour's bed: glioblastoma stem cells and the vascular niche

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The Tumor Suppressor p53 Regulates Polarity of Self-Renewing Divisions in Mammary Stem Cells

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SSEA-1 Is an Enrichment Marker for Tumor-Initiating Cells in Human Glioblastoma

Son, M. J., Woolard, K., Nam, D.-H., Lee, J., & Fine, H. A. (2009) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2009.03.003 · Cited by 672

Glycine decarboxylase activity drives non-small cell lung cancer tumor-initiating cells and tumorigenesis

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Integrin Alpha 6 Regulates Glioblastoma Stem Cells

Lathia, J. D., Gallagher, J., Heddleston, J. M., Wang, J., Eyler, C. E., MacSwords, J., Wu, Q., Vasanji, A., McLendon, R. E., Hjelmeland, A. B., et al. (2010) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2010.02.018 · Cited by 660

Notch Promotes Radioresistance of Glioma Stem Cells

Wang, J., Wakeman, T. P., Lathia, J. D., Hjelmeland, A. B., Wang, X.-F., White, R. R., Rich, J. N., & Sullenger, B. A. (2010) · Stem Cells · doi:10.1002/stem.261 · Cited by 656

Coexistence of LMPP-like and GMP-like Leukemia Stem Cells in Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Goardon, N., Marchi, E., Atzberger, A., Quek, L., Schuh, A., Soneji, S., Woll, P., Mead, A., Alford, K. A., Rout, R., et al. (2011) · Cancer Cell · doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2010.12.012 · Cited by 653

Phenotypic Heterogeneity among Tumorigenic Melanoma Cells from Patients that Is Reversible and Not Hierarchically Organized

Quintana, E., Shackleton, M., Foster, H. R., Fullen, D. R., Sabel, M. S., Johnson, T. M., & Morrison, S. J. (2010) · Cancer Cell · doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2010.10.012 · Cited by 599

Cutaneous cancer stem cell maintenance is dependent on β-catenin signalling

Malanchi, I., Peinado, H., Kassen, D., Hussenet, T., Metzger, D., Chambon, P., Huber, M., Hohl, D., Cano, A., Birchmeier, W., et al. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature06835 · Cited by 597

Identification and characterization of leukemia stem cells in murine MLL-AF9 acute myeloid leukemia

Somervaille, T. C. P., & Cleary, M. L. (2006) · Cancer Cell · doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2006.08.020 · Cited by 582

Perivascular Nitric Oxide Activates Notch Signaling and Promotes Stem-like Character in PDGF-Induced Glioma Cells

Charles, N., Ozawa, T., Squatrito, M., Bleau, A.-M., Brennan, C. W., Hambardzumyan, D., & Holland, E. C. (2010) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2010.01.001 · Cited by 550

A Hierarchy of Self-Renewing Tumor-Initiating Cell Types in Glioblastoma

Chen, R., Nishimura, M. C., Bumbaca, S. M., Kharbanda, S., Forrest, W. F., Kasman, I. M., Greve, J. M., Soriano, R. H., Gilmour, L. L., Rivers, C. S., et al. (2010) · Cancer Cell · doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2009.12.049 · Cited by 544

Regulation of Breast Cancer Stem Cell Activity by Signaling through the Notch4 Receptor

Harrison, H., Farnie, G., Howell, S. J., Rock, R. E., Stylianou, S., Brennan, K. R., Bundred, N. J., & Clarke, R. B. (2010) · Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/0008-5472.can-09-1681 · Cited by 543

A Subpopulation of CD26+ Cancer Stem Cells with Metastatic Capacity in Human Colorectal Cancer

Pang, R., Law, W. L., Chu, A. C. Y., Poon, J. T., Lam, C. S. C., Chow, A. K. M., Ng, L., Cheung, L. W. H., Lan, X. R., Lan, H. Y., et al. (2010) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2010.04.001 · Cited by 540

Monoclonal Antibody-Mediated Targeting of CD123, IL-3 Receptor α Chain, Eliminates Human Acute Myeloid Leukemic Stem Cells

Jin, L., Lee, E. M., Ramshaw, H. S., Busfield, S. J., Peoppl, A. G., Wilkinson, L., Guthridge, M. A., Thomas, D., Barry, E. F., Boyd, A., et al. (2009) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2009.04.018 · Cited by 522

Expansion of Bcr-Abl-Positive Leukemic Stem Cells Is Dependent on Hedgehog Pathway Activation

Dierks, C., Beigi, R., Guo, G.-R., Zirlik, K., Stegert, M. R., Manley, P., Trussell, C., Schmitt-Graeff, A., Landwerlin, K., Veelken, H., et al. (2008) · Cancer Cell · doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2008.08.003 · Cited by 517

Aldehyde Dehydrogenase in Combination with CD133 Defines Angiogenic Ovarian Cancer Stem Cells That Portend Poor Patient Survival

Silva, I. A., Bai, S., McLean, K., Yang, K., Griffith, K., Thomas, D., Ginestier, C., Johnston, C., Kueck, A., Reynolds, R. K., et al. (2011) · Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-3175 · Cited by 514

Targeting Hedgehog — a Cancer Stem Cell Pathway

Merchant, A. A., & Matsui, W. (2010) · Clinical Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-09-2846 · Cited by 500

TIM-3 Is a Promising Target to Selectively Kill Acute Myeloid Leukemia Stem Cells

Kikushige, Y., Shima, T., Takayanagi, S.-I., Urata, S., Miyamoto, T., Iwasaki, H., Takenaka, K., Teshima, T., Tanaka, T., Inagaki, Y., et al. (2010) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2010.11.014 · Cited by 477

PI3K pathway regulates survival of cancer stem cells residing in the perivascular niche following radiation in medulloblastoma in vivo

Hambardzumyan, D., Becher, O. J., Rosenblum, M. K., Pandolfi, P. P., Manova-Todorova, K., & Holland, E. C. (2008) · Genes & Development · doi:10.1101/gad.1627008 · Cited by 468

A vascular niche and a VEGF–Nrp1 loop regulate the initiation and stemness of skin tumours

Beck, B., Driessens, G., Goossens, S., Youssef, K. K., Kuchnio, A., Caauwe, A., Sotiropoulou, P. A., Loges, S., Lapouge, G., Candi, A., et al. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10525 · Cited by 467

Cancer stem cells from human breast tumors are involved in spontaneous metastases in orthotopic mouse models

Liu, H., Patel, M. R., Prescher, J. A., Patsialou, A., Qian, D., Lin, J., Wen, S., Chang, Y.-F., Bachmann, M. H., Shimono, Y., et al. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1006732107 · Cited by 465

Evolution of human BCR–ABL1 lymphoblastic leukaemia-initiating cells

Notta, F., Mullighan, C. G., Wang, J. C. Y., Poeppl, A., Doulatov, S., Phillips, L. A., Ma, J., Minden, M. D., Downing, J. R., & Dick, J. E. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09733 · Cited by 463

CD133 Expression Defines a Tumor Initiating Cell Population in Primary Human Ovarian Cancer

Curley, M. D., Therrien, V. A., Cummings, C. L., Sergent, P. A., Koulouris, C. R., Friel, A. M., Roberts, D. J., Seiden, M. V., Scadden, D. T., Rueda, B. R., et al. (2009) · Stem Cells · doi:10.1002/stem.236 · Cited by 440

Induction of cell cycle entry eliminates human leukemia stem cells in a mouse model of AML

Saito, Y., Uchida, N., Tanaka, S., Suzuki, N., Tomizawa-Murasawa, M., Sone, A., Najima, Y., Takagi, S., Aoki, Y., Wake, A., et al. (2010) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/nbt.1607 · Cited by 419

Nodal/Activin Signaling Drives Self-Renewal and Tumorigenicity of Pancreatic Cancer Stem Cells and Provides a Target for Combined Drug Therapy

Lonardo, E., Hermann, P. C., Mueller, M.-T., Huber, S., Balic, A., Miranda-Lorenzo, I., Zagorac, S., Alcala, S., Rodriguez-Arabaolaza, I., Ramirez, J. C., et al. (2011) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2011.10.001 · Cited by 405

Acidic stress promotes a glioma stem cell phenotype

Hjelmeland, A. B., Wu, Q., Heddleston, J. M., Choudhary, G. S., MacSwords, J., Lathia, J. D., McLendon, R., Lindner, D., Sloan, A., & Rich, J. N. (2011) · Cell Death & Differentiation · doi:10.1038/cdd.2010.150 · Cited by 402

DLL4 Blockade Inhibits Tumor Growth and Reduces Tumor-Initiating Cell Frequency

Hoey, T., Yen, W.-C., Axelrod, F., Basi, J., Donigian, L., Dylla, S., Fitch-Bruhns, M., Lazetic, S., Park, I.-K., Sato, A., et al. (2009) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2009.05.019 · Cited by 398

Association of a Leukemic Stem Cell Gene Expression Signature With Clinical Outcomes in Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Gentles, A. J. (2010) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2010.1862 · Cited by 395

Human acute myelogenous leukemia stem cells are rare and heterogeneous when assayed in NOD/SCID/IL2Rγc-deficient mice

Sarry, J.-E., Murphy, K., Perry, R., Sanchez, P. V., Secreto, A., Keefer, C., Swider, C. R., Strzelecki, A.-C., Cavelier, C., Récher, C., et al. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci41495 · Cited by 386

c-Met Is a Marker of Pancreatic Cancer Stem Cells and Therapeutic Target

Li, C., Wu, J., Hynes, M., Dosch, J., Sarkar, B., Welling, T. H., Pasca di Magliano, M., & Simeone, D. M. (2011) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2011.08.009 · Cited by 386

Therapeutic Antibody Targeting of CD47 Eliminates Human Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Chao, M. P., Alizadeh, A. A., Tang, C., Jan, M., Weissman-Tsukamoto, R., Zhao, F., Park, C. Y., Weissman, I. L., & Majeti, R. (2011) · Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-2238 · Cited by 382

Anti-CD38 antibody–mediated clearance of human repopulating cells masks the heterogeneity of leukemia-initiating cells

Taussig, D. C., Miraki-Moud, F., Anjos-Afonso, F., Pearce, D. J., Allen, K., Ridler, C., Lillington, D., Oakervee, H., Cavenagh, J., Agrawal, S. G., et al. (2008) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2007-10-118331 · Cited by 373

Identification of CD15 as a Marker for Tumor-Propagating Cells in a Mouse Model of Medulloblastoma

Read, T.-A., Fogarty, M. P., Markant, S. L., McLendon, R. E., Wei, Z., Ellison, D. W., Febbo, P. G., & Wechsler-Reya, R. J. (2009) · Cancer Cell · doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2008.12.016 · Cited by 370

Hierarchical Maintenance of MLL Myeloid Leukemia Stem Cells Employs a Transcriptional Program Shared with Embryonic Rather Than Adult Stem Cells

Somervaille, T. C. P., Matheny, C. J., Spencer, G. J., Iwasaki, M., Rinn, J. L., Witten, D. M., Chang, H. Y., Shurtleff, S. A., Downing, J. R., & Cleary, M. L. (2009) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2008.11.015 · Cited by 357

Human CD271-Positive Melanoma Stem Cells Associated with Metastasis Establish Tumor Heterogeneity and Long-term Growth

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Glioma Stem Cell Proliferation and Tumor Growth Are Promoted by Nitric Oxide Synthase-2

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Cell-cycle restriction limits DNA damage and maintains self-renewal of leukaemia stem cells

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Distinct types of tumor-initiating cells form human colon cancer tumors and metastases

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Microenvironment Determines Lineage Fate in a Human Model of MLL-AF9 Leukemia

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Tumor-initiating stem cells of squamous cell carcinomas and their control by TGF-β and integrin/focal adhesion kinase (FAK) signaling

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Nonreceptor Tyrosine Kinase BMX Maintains Self-Renewal and Tumorigenic Potential of Glioblastoma Stem Cells by Activating STAT3

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Persistent Malignant Stem Cells in del(5q) Myelodysplasia in Remission

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Tumor-Initiating Cells Are Rare in Many Human Tumors

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Selective targeting of radiation-resistant tumor-initiating cells

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Phenotypic heterogeneity and instability of human ovarian tumor-initiating cells

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L1CAM regulates DNA damage checkpoint response of glioblastoma stem cells through NBS1

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Mouse differentiating spermatogonia can generate germinal stem cells in vivo

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Multipotent CD15+ Cancer Stem Cells in Patched-1 –Deficient Mouse Medulloblastoma

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CD44posCD49fhiCD133/2hi Defines Xenograft-Initiating Cells in Estrogen Receptor–Negative Breast Cancer

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Direct In Vivo Evidence for Tumor Propagation by Glioblastoma Cancer Stem Cells

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Primary Tumor Genotype Is an Important Determinant in Identification of Lung Cancer Propagating Cells

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Using a Stem Cell–Based Signature to Guide Therapeutic Selection in Cancer

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Modeling the functional heterogeneity of leukemia stem cells: role of STAT5 in leukemia stem cell self-renewal

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Decoupling of Tumor-Initiating Activity from Stable Immunophenotype in HoxA9-Meis1-Driven AML

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Hedgehog and Notch Signaling Regulate Self-Renewal of Undifferentiated Pleomorphic Sarcomas

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A small molecule screening strategy with validation on human leukemia stem cells uncovers the therapeutic efficacy of kinetin riboside

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Machine Learning Identifies Stemness Features Associated with Oncogenic Dedifferentiation

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Targeting cancer stem cell pathways for cancer therapy

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Obesity and adverse breast cancer risk and outcome: Mechanistic insights and strategies for intervention

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Integrins and cancer: regulators of cancer stemness, metastasis, and drug resistance

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NF‐κB signaling in inflammation and cancer

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