Psychedelic Drugs in Biomedicine
Abstract
Psychedelic drugs, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, and psilocybin, exert profound effects on brain and behavior. After decades of difficulties in studying these compounds, psychedelics are again being tested as potential treatments for intractable biomedical disorders. Preclinical research of psychedelics complements human neuroimaging studies and pilot clinical trials, suggesting these compounds as promising treatments for addiction, depression, anxiety, and other conditions. However, many questions regarding the mechanisms of action, safety, and efficacy of psychedelics remain. Here, we summarize recent preclinical and clinical data in this field, discuss their pharmacological mechanisms of action, and outline critical areas for future studies of psychedelic drugs, with the goal of maximizing the potential benefits of translational psychedelic biomedicine to patients.
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The beneficial effects of psychoplastogens can last for months following a single administration.
“While the beneficial effects of psychoplastogens can last for months following a single administration (40, 166, 167)”
From Psychedelics and Other Psychoplastogens for Treating Mental Illness. (2021) · cites this paper as [166]
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Psychedelics promote structural and functional neural plasticity
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“A key question in the field of psychedelic medicine has been whether or not psychedelics promote changes in the density of dendritic spines (Kyzar et al., 2017).”
BackgroundJohnson, M. W., Hendricks, P. S., Barrett, F. S., & Griffiths, R. R. (2019) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.11.010 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
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“However, despite renewed scientific and clinical interest in these substances, there are still major gaps in our knowledge regarding the effects of psychedelics on the brain and their pharmacological mechanism of action (2).”
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“Although many questions remain about the mechanisms of action and efficacy, psychedelic drugs have seen a renaissance in research on their therapeutic potential, ranging from the treatment of depression to substance use disorders and PTSD (Kyzar et al., 2017; Curran et al., 2018).”
BackgroundPsychedelics as anti-inflammatory agents
Flanagan, T. W., & Nichols, C. D. (2018) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/09540261.2018.1481827 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Self-citationGregorio, D. D., Aguilar‐Valles, A., Preller, K. H., Heifets, B. D., Hibicke, M., Mitchell, J., & Gobbi, G. (2020) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1659-20.2020 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
“They produce psychotropic effects, but they do not share the same mechanism of action as hallucinogens (Kyzar et al., 2017).”
A systematic study of microdosing psychedelics
Polito, V., & Stevenson, R. J. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211023 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Pharmacological, neural, and psychological mechanisms underlying psychedelics: A critical review
van Elk, M., & Yaden, D. B. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104793 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
“These receptor-mechanisms may underlie the therapeutic effects of psychedelics on addiction and depression, by affecting the sensitivity to reward and stress at a pharmacological level (Kyzar et al., 2017).”
BackgroundTherapeutic Use of LSD in Psychiatry: A Systematic Review of Randomized-Controlled Clinical Trials
Fuentes, J. J., Fonseca, F., Elices, M., Farré, M., & Torrens, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00943 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“Likewise, these are potent regulators of transcription factors, which could mediate a potential mechanism of action in the synaptic structure with greater persistence of their effects over time (23, 24).”
BackgroundCameron, L. P., Benson, C. J., DeFelice, B. C., Fiehn, O., & Olson, D. E. (2019) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00692 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Psychedelics and Other Psychoplastogens for Treating Mental Illness.
Vargas, M. V., Meyer, R., Avanes, A. A., Rus, M., & Olson, D. E. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.727117 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
De Gregorio, D., Popic, J., Enns, J. P., Inserra, A., Skalecka, A., Markopoulos, A., Posa, L., Lopez-Canul, M., He, Q., Lafferty, C. K., et al. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2020705118 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“LSD is a partial agonist of the serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor (6), but also displays affinity for the 5-HT 1A receptor (7 – 9).”
Taves, A. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619895047 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Biochemical Mechanisms Underlying Psychedelic-Induced Neuroplasticity
Olson, D. E. (2022) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.biochem.1c00812 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Updating the dynamic framework of thought: Creativity and psychedelics
Girn, M., Mills, C., Roseman, L., Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Kalina Christoff, A. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116726 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“However, with a rapidly increasing body of work suggesting their value in both basic science research and in a variety of clinical applications (Carhart-Harris and Friston, 2019; Johnson et al., 2019; Kyzar et al., 2017; Nichols, 2016), the coming years are likely to see a relaxing of institutional barriers to conduct…”
BackgroundChronic pain and psychedelics: a review and proposed mechanism of action
Castellanos, J. P., Woolley, C., Bruno, K. A., Zeidan, F. Z., Halberstadt, A. L., & Furnish, T. J. (2020) · Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine · doi:10.1136/rapm-2020-101273 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“45”
Reckweg, J. T., Uthaug, M. V., Szabó, A., Davis, A. K., Lancelotta, R., Mason, N. L., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2022) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15587 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Psychedelic Microdosing: Prevalence and Subjective Effects
Cameron, L. P., Nazarian, A., & Olson, D. E. (2020) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2020.1718250 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“…have shown promise as experimental therapeutics in the clinic for treating depression, anxiety, and substance use disorder (Cameron and Olson 2018b; Carhart-Harris and Goodwin 2017; Dos Santos et al. 2016; Kyzar et al. 2017; Mithoefer, Grob, and Brewerton 2016; Nichols, Johnson, and Nichols 2017).”
BackgroundThe Enactive Approach to Habits: New Concepts for the Cognitive Science of Bad Habits and Addiction
Ramírez–Vizcaya, S., & Froese, T. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00301 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
Dunlap, L. E., Andrews, A. M., & Olson, D. E. (2018) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00155 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Kadriu, B., Greenwald, M., Henter, I. D., Gilbert, J. R., Kraus, C., Park, L. T., & Zarate, C. A. (2021) · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyaa087 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“In particular, growing evidence suggests that particular experiences during the psychoactive period are uniquely predictive of therapeutic outcome with SPs (Kyzar et al., 2017).”
BackgroundDinis‐Oliveira, R. J., Pereira, C. L., & da Silva, D. D. (2018) · Current Molecular Pharmacology · doi:10.2174/1874467211666181010154139 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Martial, C., Cassol, H., Charland‐Verville, V., Pallavicini, C., Sanz, C., Zamberlán, F., Vivot, R. M., Erowid, F., Erowid, E., Laureys, S., et al. (2019) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.011 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Mescaline: The forgotten psychedelic
Vamvakopoulou, I. A., Narine, K. A. D., Campbell, I., Dyck, J. R. B., & Nutt, D. (2022) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109294 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Registered clinical studies investigating psychedelic drugs for psychiatric disorders
Siegel, A. N., Meshkat, S., Benitah, K., Lipsitz, O., Gill, H., Lui, L. M. W., Teopiz, K. M., McIntyre, R. S., & Rosenblat, J. D. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.05.019 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“Psychedelics, also known as serotonergic hallucinogens, are among the hallucinogenic class of drugs and can exert profound effects on the brain and behavior via serotonin receptor mechanisms (Kyzar et al., 2017; Nichols, 2016).”
BackgroundChi, T., & Gold, J. A. (2020) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2020.116715 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Gregorio, D. D., Enns, J. P., Núñez, N. A., Posa, L., & Gobbi, G. (2018) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.07.008 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Livne, O., Shmulewitz, D., Walsh, C. A., & Hasin, D. S. (2022) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15987 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
Nichols, D. E. (2018) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00043 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationHeuschkel, K., & Kuypers, K. P. C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00224 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Effects of External Stimulation on Psychedelic State Neurodynamics
Mediano, P. A. M., Rosas, F. E., Timmermann, C., Roseman, L., Nutt, D., Feilding, A., Kaelen, M., Kringelbach, M. L., Barrett, A. B., Seth, A. K., et al. (2024) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00289 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Mescaline
Cassels, B. K., & Sáez-Briones, P. (2018) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00215 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Kozłowska, U., Nichols, C. D., Wiatr, K., & Figiel, M. (2021) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15509 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“…Flanagan and Nichols suggests that this may occur because of psychedelic induced anti- inflammatory responses whereby the psychedelic reduces neuroinflammation associated with MDD, which could otherwise facilitate relapse back into a depressed state (Flanagan & Nichols, 2018; Kyzar et al., 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDuan, W., Cao, D., Wang, S., & Cheng, J. (2023) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00375 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Witkin, J. M., Martin, A. E., Golani, L. K., Xu, N. Z., & Smith, J. L. (2019) · Advances in pharmacology · doi:10.1016/bs.apha.2019.03.002 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Positive psychology in the investigation of psychedelics and entactogens: a critical review
Jungaberle, H., Thal, S., Zeuch, A., Rougemont-Bücking, A., von Heyden, M., Aicher, H., & Scheidegger, M. (2018) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.06.034 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Higgins, G. A., Carroll, N. K., Brown, M., MacMillan, C., Silenieks, L. B., Thevarkunnel, S., Izhakova, J., Magomedova, L., DeLannoy, I., & Sellers, E. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.640241 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Mertens, L. J., & Preller, K. H. (2021) · Pharmacopsychiatry · doi:10.1055/a-1341-1907 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Given that addiction and mood disorders have been associated with increases in inflammation markers as outlined above, it has been proposed that the anti-inflammatory properties of psychedelics may contribute to the long-lasting therapeutic effects after only a single dose [116].”
BackgroundTrips and neurotransmitters: Discovering principled patterns across 6850 hallucinogenic experiences
Ballentine, G., Friedman, S. F., & Bzdok, D. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abl6989 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Psychedelic‐inspired approaches for treating neurodegenerative disorders
Saeger, H. N., & Olson, D. E. (2021) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15544 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“In fact, psychedelics have distinguished themselves as promising medicines as they elicit therapeutic responses in multiple neuropsychiatric disorders (Dos Santos et al., 2016) and produce beneficial effects that can last for months following a single administration (Kyzar et al., 2017).”
BackgroundAtasoy, S., Vohryzek, J., Deco, G., Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2018) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.08.009 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: NBOMes
Poulie, C. B. M., Jensen, A. A., Halberstadt, A. L., & Kristensen, J. L. (2019) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00528 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Shahar, O., Botvinnik, A., Esh-Zuntz, N., Brownstien, M., Wolf, R., Lotan, A., Wolf, G., Lerer, B., & Lifschytz, T. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232214148 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“…(5-MeO-DMT); phenethylamines such as mescaline; and ergolines such as LSD. Serotonergic psychedelic agents such as psilocybin are thought to act mainly via the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor to which psilocybin’s active metabolite, psilocin, binds with high affinity (Nichols, 2016; Kyzar et al., 2017).”
BackgroundOña, G., & Bouso, J. C. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.035 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Aqil, M., & Roseman, L. (2022) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109300 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“These substances elicit an extremely varied array of effects, spanning the entire brain functional hierarchy, from low-level sensory, to mood, and high-level cognitive alterations (Halberstadt, 2015; Nichols, 2016; Preller and Vollenweider, 2016; Kyzar et al., 2017; Vollenweider and Preller, 2020; Inserra et al., 2021…”
BackgroundPottie, E., Dedecker, P., & Stove, C. P. (2020) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114251 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Flanagan, T. W., Sebastian, M. N., Battaglia, D. M., Foster, T. P., Maillet, E. L., & Nichols, C. D. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-49987-0 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Self-citationClassic psychedelics and alcohol use disorders: A systematic review of human and animal studies
Calleja‐Conde, J., Morales-Garcia, J. A., Echeverry‐Alzate, V., Bühler, K., Giné, E., & López‐Moreno, J. A. (2022) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.13229 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Serotonergic hallucinogens, also known as psychedelics, are a class of compounds that exert profound effects on the brain via serotonin receptors.(4) Classic psychedelics refer to substances such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, ayahuasca (DMT) and mescaline, which induce altered states of consciousnes…”
Backgroundvan Elk, M., Fejer, G., Lempe, P., Prochazkova, L., Kuchař, M., Hájková, K., & Marschall, J. (2021) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-021-05857-0 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Whelan, A., & Johnson, M. I. (2018) · Pain Management · doi:10.2217/pmt-2017-0068 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Flanagan, T. W., Billac, G. B., Landry, A. N., Sebastian, M. N., Cormier, S., & Nichols, C. D. (2020) · ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science · doi:10.1021/acsptsci.0c00063 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationArtificial intelligence-driven phenotyping of zebrafish psychoactive drug responses
Bozhko, D. V., Myrov, V. O., Kolchanova, S. M., Polovian, A. I., Galumov, G. K., Demin, K. A., Zabegalov, K. N., Strekalova, T., de Abreu, M. S., Petersen, E. V., et al. (2021) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110405 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationPędzich, B. D., Rubens, S., Sekssaoui, M., Pierre, A., Schuerbeek, A. V., Marin, P., Bockaert, J., Valjent, E., Bécamel, C., & Bundel, D. D. (2022) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-022-01324-2 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Understanding the neurobiological effects of drug abuse: Lessons from zebrafish models
Müller, T. E., Fontana, B. D., Bertoncello, K. T., Franscescon, F., Mezzomo, N. J., Canzian, J., Stefanello, F. V., Parker, M. O., Gerlai, R. T., & Rosemberg, D. B. (2020) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.109873 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Witkin, J. M., Knutson, D. E., Rodriguez, G. J., & Shi, S. X.-Y. (2018) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/1381612824666180730104707 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Mindfulness meditation and psychedelics: potential synergies and commonalities
Holas, P., & Kamińska, J. (2023) · Pharmacological Reports · doi:10.1007/s43440-023-00551-8 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Psilocybin modulates the immune response by suppressing inflammatory pathways through actions mediated by this 5-HT2A receptor [106], 117].”
BackgroundToward Mapping Neurobehavioral Heterogeneity of Psychedelic Neurobiology in Humans
Moujaes, F., Preller, K. H., Ji, J. L., Murray, J. D., Berkovitch, L., Vollenweider, F. X., & Anticevic, A. (2022) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.10.021 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Volgin, A. D., Yakovlev, O. A., Demin, K. A., Alekseeva, P. A., Kyzar, E. J., Collins, C. J., Nichols, D. E., & Kalueff, A. V. (2018) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00433 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationBarsuglia, J. P., Polanco, M., Palmer, R., Malcolm, B. J., Kelmendi, B., & Calvey, T. (2018) · Progress in Brain Research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.08.002 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Honyiglo, E., Franchi, A., Cartiser, N., Bottinelli, C., Advenier, A., Bévalot, F., & Fanton, L. (2019) · Journal of Forensic Sciences · doi:10.1111/1556-4029.13982 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Recently, psilocybin was reported to be promising in the treatment of some cases of severe resistant depression, addiction and obsessive-compulsive disorder (13,20,21).”
BackgroundPsychedelic medicine: The biology underlying the persisting psychedelic effects
Kuypers, K. P. C. (2019) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2019.02.029 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
An Improved, Practical, and Scalable Five-Step Synthesis of Psilocybin
Kargbo, R. B., Sherwood, A. M., Meisenheimer, P. L., & Tarpley, G. (2020) · Synthesis · doi:10.1055/s-0039-1691565 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Novel Psychoactive Phenethylamines: Impact on Genetic Material
Cocchi, V., Gasperini, S., Hrelia, P., Tirri, M., Marti, M., & Lenzi, M. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21249616 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Sinha, J. K., Trisal, A., Ghosh, S., Gupta, S., Singh, D. K. K., Han, S. S., Mahapatra, M., Abomughaid, M. M., Abomughayedh, A. M., Almutary, A. G., et al. (2024) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2024.102211 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Are Psychedelic Medicines the Reset for Chronic Pain? Preliminary Findings and Research Needs
Zia, F., Baumann, M., Belouin, S., Dworkin, R., Ghauri, M. H., Hendricks, P. S., Henningfield, J., Lanier, R., Ross, S., & Berger, A. (2023) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109528 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Psychedelic control of neuroimmune interactions governing fear
Chung, E. N., Lee, J., Polonio, C. M., Choi, J., Akl, C. F., Kilian, M., Weiß, W. M., Gunner, G., Ye, M., Heo, T. H., et al. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08880-9 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Molecular targets of psychedelic‐induced plasticity
Jaster, A. M., Revenga, M. D. L. F., & González‐Maeso, J. (2021) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15536 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“…psychedelics, particularly naturally occurring compounds such as psilocybin and DMT in the ayahuasca brew, also behave as rapid- acting antidepressant medications (Carhart- Harris et al., 2016, 2021; Davis et al., 2020; Griffiths et al., 2016; Kyzar et al., 2017; Vollenweider & Kometer, 2010).”
BackgroundNew Paradigms of Old Psychedelics in Schizophrenia
Mahmood, D., Alenezi, S. K., Anwar, M. J., Azam, F., Qureshi, K. A., & Jaremko, M. (2022) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph15050640 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Psychedelic drugs have been reported to produce effects at the cellular and molecular levels in the brain, which probably explains their potential use in a number of etiologically varied psychiatric illnesses (Figure 1) [56].”
BackgroundPsychedelics and Anti-inflammatory Activity in Animal Models
Flanagan, T. W., & Nichols, C. D. (2022) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2022_367 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationA Comprehensive Review of the Current Status of the Cellular Neurobiology of Psychedelics
Banushi, B., & Polito, V. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12111380 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Although research into the anti-inflammatory effects of psychedelics is at an early stage, this line of research shows potential for treating neurological disorders marked by chronic immune activity such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, as well as autoimmune-related conditions [36].”
BackgroundOña, G., Berrada, A., & Bouso, J. C. (2021) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13634615211038416 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“This ensures the reconnection of networks in a “healthy” manner (Kyzar et al., 2017).”
BackgroundNarratives of the mystical among users of psychedelics
Pedersen, W., Copes, H., & Gashi, L. (2021) · Acta Sociologica · doi:10.1177/0001699320980050 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…projects have now been initiated, and several of them suggest positive effects of psychedelics-assisted therapy on psychiatric conditions such as depression, obsessive compulsive disorder and nicotine dependence (for reviews, see Johnson and Griffiths, 2017; Kyzar et al., 2017; Liechti, 2017).”
BackgroundJensen, O., Rafehi, M., Gebauer, L., & Brockmöller, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.609811 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Being a high-affinity partial agonist for the 5-HT2A receptor, potential therapeutic uses for mescaline were proposed for disorders associated with serotonin deficiency, such as addiction, anxiety, and depression (Kyzar et al., 2017; Johnson et al., 2019).”
BackgroundElucidation of the mescaline biosynthetic pathway in peyote (Lophophora williamsii)
Watkins, J. L., Li, Q., Yeaman, S., & Facchini, P. J. (2023) · The Plant Journal · doi:10.1111/tpj.16447 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Oña, G., Reverte, I., Rossi, G. N., SANTOS, R. G. D., Hallak, J. E. C., Colomina, M. T., & Bouso, J. C. (2023) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811231200882 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Unlike other hallucinogens, IBO/NOR have weak affinities for serotonin (5-HT) receptors, including the 5-HT 2A receptor, which is the main target of classic hallucino-gens such as LSD, psilocybin, and DMT (Kyzar et al., 2017).”
BackgroundDworkin, R. H., Anderson, B. T., Andrews, N., Edwards, R. R., Grob, C. S., Ross, S., Satterthwaite, T. D., & Strain, E. C. (2022) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2022.05.003 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Bedside to bench: the outlook for psychedelic research
Acero, V. P., Cribas, E. S., Browne, K. D., Rivellini, O. M., Burrell, J. C., O’Donnell, J. C., Das, S., & Cullen, D. K. (2023) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2023.1240295 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Flanagan, T. W., Foster, T. P., Galbato, T. E., Lum, P. Y., Louie, B., Song, G., Halberstadt, A. L., Billac, G. B., & Nichols, C. D. (2024) · ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science · doi:10.1021/acsptsci.3c00297 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychedelics elicit their effects by 5-HT2A receptor-mediated Gi signalling
Xu, Z., Wang, H., Yu, J., Deng, Y., Tian, X., Ni, R., Xia, F., Yang, L., Xu, C., Zhang, L., et al. (2026) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-10061-7 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Reaction of N , N -Dimethyltryptamine with Dichloromethane Under Common Experimental Conditions
Dunlap, L. E., & Olson, D. E. (2018) · ACS Omega · doi:10.1021/acsomega.8b00507 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Oña, G., Sampedro, F., Romero, S., Valle, M., Camacho, V., Migliorelli, C., Mañanas, M. Á., Antonijoan, R. M., Puntes, M., Coimbra, J., et al. (2021) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyab063 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“, 2015) in contrast with the effects of classical serotonergic psychedelics, which are mediated by 5-HT2A receptors (Vollenweider et al., 1998; Kyzar et al., 2017; Holze et al., 2020).”
ResultLinguiti, S., Vogel, J. W., Sydnor, V. J., Pines, A. R., Wellman, N., Basbaum, A. I., Eickhoff, C. R., Eickhoff, S. B., Edwards, R. R., Larsen, B., et al. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105421 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Basedow, L. A., Riemer, T., Reiche, S., Kreutz, R. H., & Majić, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.739966 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“In the next sections, we will discuss the included studies which can be divided into two groups: 1) studies from 1969 to 1983, which almost exclusively investigated users of the semisynthetic ergoline SP LSD, which was by far the most commonly used SP then and still is today (Winstock et al., 2021), and 2) studies fro…”
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Castillo, A., Dubois, J., Field, R. M., Fishburn, F. A., Gundran, A., Ho, W. C., Jawhar, S., Kates‐Harbeck, J., Aghajan, Z. M., Miller, N., et al. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-38258-8 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Females in Psychedelic Research: A Perspective for Advancing Research and Practice
Cohen, Z. Z., & Blest‐Hopley, G. (2025) · ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science · doi:10.1021/acsptsci.5c00255 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Psychedelics and schizophrenia: a double-edged sword
Sapienza, J., Martini, F., Comai, S., Cavallaro, R., Spangaro, M., Gregorio, D. D., & Bosia, M. (2024) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-024-02743-x · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“They produce psychotropic effects, but they do not share the same mechanism of action as hallucinogens [54].”
Oña, G., & Bouso, J. (2019) · Current Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.2174/0929867326666191212103330 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The association between naturalistic use of psychedelics and co-occurring substance use disorders
Rabinowitz, J., Lev‐Ran, S., & Gross, R. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1066369 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Borgland, S. L., & Neyens, D. M. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1503/jpn.220090 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Ayahuasca and Childhood Trauma: Potential Therapeutic Applications
Perkins, D., & Sarris, J. J. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-55688-4_6 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Human behavioral pharmacology of psychedelics
Strickland, J. C., & Johnson, M. W. (2022) · Advances in pharmacology · doi:10.1016/bs.apha.2021.10.003 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Krupp, K. T., Yaeger, J. D. W., Ledesma, L. J., Withanage, M. H. H., Gale, J., Howe, C. B., Allen, T. J., Sathyanesan, M., Newton, S. S., & Summers, C. H. (2024) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2024.109949 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…long-lasting antidepressive effects in clinical models of depression (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016, 2018; Griffiths et al., 2016; Grob et al., 2011; Kyzar et al., 2017; Nichols et al., 2017b; Os ´ orio et al., 2015; Palhano-Fontes et al., 2019; Roseman et al., 2018; Ross et al., 2016; Sanches et…”
Microdosing psychedelics as cognitive and emotional enhancers.
Rifkin, B. D., Maraver, M. J., & Colzato, L. S. (2020) · Psychology of Consciousness Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/cns0000213 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The Promise of Psychedelic Science
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A Systematic Study of Microdosing PsychedelicsPreprint
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Classic psychedelics: the special role of the visual system
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“Nevertheless, preclinical studies of psychedelics, neuroimaging studies, and pilot clinical trials suggest that treatments by psychedelics can be promising for addiction, depression, anxiety, and other conditions (Ross, 2012; Bogenschutz, 2013; Johnson and Griffiths, 2017; Johnson et al., 2017; Kyzar et al., 2017; Nic…”
BackgroundPsychoactive substances for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders
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Commentary: Establishing zebrafish as a model to study the anxiolytic effects of scopolamine
de Abreu, M. S., Friend, A. J., Amstislavskaya, T. G., & Kalueff, A. V. (2018) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.00293 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“The growing interest in hallucinogenic psychopharmacology (Kyzar et al., 2017) has recently been expanded to zebrafish models (Kyzar and Kalueff, 2016), thus meriting further consideration here.”
BackgroundSelf-citationAre we hallucinating or can psychedelic drugs modulate the immune system to control inflammation?
Qureshi, O., Cowley, J., Pegg, A., Cooper, A. J., Gordon, J., Brady, C., Belli, A., Butterworth, S., Upthegrove, R., Andrews, N., et al. (2025) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.70138 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kyzar, E. J., Nichols, C. D., Gainetdinov, R. R., Nichols, D. E., & Kalueff, A. V.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Chicago (US)
- Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New Orleans (US)
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology (RU)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Ural Federal University (RU)
- Corresponding author
- Kyzar, Evan J.
- Kalueff, Allan V.
- Venue
- Trends in Pharmacological Sciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-11
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 992-1005
- ISSN
- 0165-6147 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2757917284
- Cited by
- 155
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 21
- FWCI
- 2.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Trends in Pharmacological Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Russian Science Foundation (14-50-00069)
- Russian Foundation for Basic Research (16-04-00851)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Treatment of Major Depression
- Keywords
- psychedelics, LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, addiction treatment, depression, anxiety, mechanism of action, drug safety and efficacy, neuroimaging
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Hallucinogens, Humans, Psychophysiology, Mind-Body Relations, Metaphysical
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