A systematic study of microdosing psychedelics
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Abstract
The phenomenon of 'microdosing', that is, regular ingestion of very small quantities of psychedelic substances, has seen a rapid explosion of popularity in recent years. Individuals who microdose report minimal acute effects from these substances yet claim a range of long-term general health and wellbeing benefits. There have been no published empirical studies of microdosing and the current legal and bureaucratic climate makes direct empirical investigation of the effects of psychedelics difficult. In Study One we conducted a systematic, observational investigation of individuals who microdose. We tracked the experiences of 98 microdosing participants, who provided daily ratings of psychological functioning over a six week period. 63 of these additionally completed a battery of psychometric measures tapping mood, attention, wellbeing, mystical experiences, personality, creativity, and sense of agency, at baseline and at completion of the study. Analyses of daily ratings revealed a general increase in reported psychological functioning across all measures on dosing days but limited evidence of residual effects on following days. Analyses of pre and post study measures revealed reductions in reported levels of depression and stress; lower levels of distractibility; increased absorption; and increased neuroticism. To better understand these findings, in Study Two we investigated pre-existing beliefs and expectations about the effects of microdosing in a sample of 263 naïve and experienced microdosers, so as to gauge expectancy bias. All participants believed that microdosing would have large and wide-ranging benefits in contrast to the limited outcomes reported by actual microdosers. Notably, the effects believed most likely to change were unrelated to the observed pattern of reported outcomes. The current results suggest that dose controlled empirical research on the impacts of microdosing on mental health and attentional capabilities are needed.
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Therapeutic benefit of low doses of psychedelics remains to be demonstrated in a well-controlled clinical study.
“therapeutic benefit of low doses of psychedelics remains to be demonstrated in a well-controlled clinical study”
From Psychedelics and Other Psychoplastogens for Treating Mental Illness. (2021) · cites this paper as [249]
Data on human psychedelic microdosing are equivocal.
“the data on human psychedelic microdosing are equivocal”
From Psychedelics and Other Psychoplastogens for Treating Mental Illness. (2021) · cites this paper as [249]
Other studies did not find a conscientiousness increase after MD in a general population sample and a general sample without individuals diagnosed with a mood, anxiety, substance use, psychotic or dissociative disorder.
“but other studies did not find this effect in a general population sample (12) and a general sample without individuals diagnosed with a mood, anxiety, substance use, psychotic or dissociative disorder (13).”
From Trait mindfulness and personality characteristics in a microdosing ADHD sample: a naturalistic prospective survey study (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
One prospective survey study investigating adults (excluding individuals with mood, anxiety, substance use, psychotic or dissociative disorders) did not find a change in mindfulness scores after MD.
“Though one prospective (survey) study investigating adults (excluding individuals with mood, anxiety, substance use, psychotic or dissociative disorders) did not find a change in mindfulness scores after MD (13)”
From Trait mindfulness and personality characteristics in a microdosing ADHD sample: a naturalistic prospective survey study (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
Other studies investigating healthy individuals did not find an agreeableness increase after MD.
“though other studies investigating healthy individuals did not find this effect (13, 29).”
From Trait mindfulness and personality characteristics in a microdosing ADHD sample: a naturalistic prospective survey study (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
Neuroticism was increased after MD in a sample consisting of adults without mood, anxiety, substance use, and psychotic or dissociative disorders.
“but was increased in a sample consisting of adults without mood, anxiety, substance use, and psychotic or dissociative disorders (13).”
From Trait mindfulness and personality characteristics in a microdosing ADHD sample: a naturalistic prospective survey study (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
The discrepancy between the findings by Polito and Stevenson and the current study could potentially be explained by different sample characteristics as they excluded individuals with certain mental disorders, such as mood and anxiety disorders.
“The discrepancy between the findings by Polito and Stevenson (13) and the current study could potentially be explained by different sample characteristics as they excluded individuals with certain mental disorders, such as mood and anxiety disorders.”
From Trait mindfulness and personality characteristics in a microdosing ADHD sample: a naturalistic prospective survey study (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
The finding that mindfulness was enhanced in MD individuals is in line with previous studies reporting this association, but in contrast to one previous prospective MD study that did not find any changes in mindfulness after 6 weeks of MD.
“The finding that mindfulness was enhanced in MD individuals is in line with previous studies reporting this association (6, 11), but in contrast to one previous prospective MD study that did not find any changes in mindfulness after 6 weeks of MD (13).”
From Trait mindfulness and personality characteristics in a microdosing ADHD sample: a naturalistic prospective survey study (2023) · cites this paper as [13]
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“Micro-dosing of psychedelics (particularly LSD and psilocybin), which generally involves taking sub-hallucinogenic doses, has been reported to lead to decreased mind-wandering (Polito and Stevenson, 2019), which at the neural level is reflected by reduced DMN activity.”
BackgroundPsychedelics in Psychiatry: Neuroplastic, Immunomodulatory, and Neurotransmitter Mechanisms
Inserra, A., De Gregorio, D., & Gobbi, G. (2021) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1124/pharmrev.120.000056 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Aday, J. S., Davis, A. K., Mitzkovitz, C. M., Bloesch, E. K., & Davoli, C. C. (2021) · ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science · doi:10.1021/acsptsci.1c00014 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Kuypers, K., Ng, L., Erritzoe, D., Knudsen, G., Nichols, C. D., Nichols, D. E., Pani, L., Soula, A., & Nutt, D. (2019) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881119857204 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
“Interestingly, these variables were not those that participants most expected to change, suggesting that long-term changes may be due to biological changes and not only expectations (Polito and Stevenson, 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-blinding citizen science to explore psychedelic microdosing
Szigeti, B., Kartner, L., Blemings, A., Rosas, F., Feilding, A., Nutt, D. J., Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Erritzoe, D. (2021) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.62878 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Almeida, R. N. D., Galvão, A. C. D. M., da Silva, F. S., Silva, E. A. D. S., Palhano-Fontes, F., Maia-de-Oliveira, J. P., de Araújo, L.-S. B., Lobão-Soares, B., & Galvão-Coelho, N. L. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01234 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Bershad, A. K., Schepers, S. T., Bremmer, M. P., Lee, R., & de Wit, H. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.05.019 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Cameron, L. P., Benson, C. J., DeFelice, B. C., Fiehn, O., & Olson, D. E. (2019) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00692 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Psychedelics and Other Psychoplastogens for Treating Mental Illness.
Vargas, M. V., Meyer, R., Avanes, A. A., Rus, M., & Olson, D. E. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.727117 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Racial Justice Requires Ending the War on Drugs
Earp, B. D., Lewis, J., Hart, C. L., & Reform, W. B. A. A. P. F. D. P. (2021) · The American Journal of Bioethics · doi:10.1080/15265161.2020.1861364 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Yanakieva, S., Polychroni, N., Family, N., Williams, L. T. J., Luke, D. P., & Terhune, D. B. (2018) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-018-5119-x · Cited by 167 · see citing works
“ported being more focused on the first day of microdosing (Polito and Stevenson 2018), although this effect declined on subsequent dosing days and it remains unclear whether”
Positive expectations predict improved mental-health outcomes linked to psychedelic microdosing
Kaertner, L. S., Steinborn, M. B., Kettner, H., Spriggs, M. J., Roseman, L., Buchborn, T., Balaet, M., Timmermann, C., Erritzoe, D., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-81446-7 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Tripping on nothing: placebo psychedelics and contextual factors
Olson, J. A., Suissa-Rocheleau, L., Lifshitz, M., Raz, A., & Veissière, S. P. L. (2020) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-020-05464-5 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Family, N., Maillet, É. L., Williams, L. T. J., Krediet, E., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Williams, T. A., Nichols, C. D., Goble, D. J., & Raz, S. (2019) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05417-7 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Microdosing with psilocybin mushrooms: a double-blind placebo-controlled study
Cavanna, F., Muller, S. L., de la Fuente, L. A., Zamberlán, F., Palmucci, M., Janeckova, L., Kuchař, M., Pallavicini, C., & Tagliazucchi, E. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-02039-0 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“This dose is representative of the upper range used for microdosing [8, 18, 26, 38].”
BackgroundResultMotives and Side-Effects of Microdosing With Psychedelics Among Users
Hutten, N. R. P. W., Mason, N. L., Dolder, P. C., & Kuypers, K. P. C. (2019) · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyz029 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“A recent follow-up study found a mismatch between expected effects and the perceived psychological changes when microdosing for 6 weeks (Polito and Stevenson, 2019).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPsychedelic microdosing benefits and challenges: an empirical codebook
Anderson, T., Petranker, R., Christopher, A., Rosenbaum, D., Weissman, C. R., Dinh-Williams, L.-A., Hui, K., & Hapke, E. (2019) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-019-0308-4 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Hutten, N. R. P. W., Mason, N. L., Dolder, P. C., Theunissen, E. L., Holze, F., Liechti, M. E., Feilding, A., Ramaekers, J. G., & Kuypers, K. P. C. (2020) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.10.002 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Microdosing psychedelics: Motivations, subjective effects and harm reduction
Lea, T., Amada, N. M., Jungaberle, H., Schecke, H., & Klein, M. (2019) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.11.008 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Psychedelic microdosing: a subreddit analysis
Lea, T., Amada, N., & Jungaberle, H. (2020) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2019.1683260 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Polito, V., & Liknaitzky, P. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104706 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Psychedelic Microdosing: Prevalence and Subjective Effects
Cameron, L. P., Nazarian, A., & Olson, D. E. (2020) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2020.1718250 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“…experiencing a decrease in depressive symptoms following psychedelic microdosing, mirroring other work demonstrating that microdosing decreases negative emotionality and improves mood (Anderson et al. 2019a; Anderson et al. 2019b; Fadiman and Korb 2019; Johnstad 2018; Polito and Stevenson 2018).”
BackgroundInvestigation of the Structure–Activity Relationships of Psilocybin Analogues
Klein, A. K., Chatha, M., Laskowski, L. J., Anderson, E. I., Brandt, S. D., Chapman, S. J., McCorvy, J. D., & Halberstadt, A. L. (2020) · ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science · doi:10.1021/acsptsci.0c00176 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Davis, A. K., Agin-Liebes, G., España, M., Pilecki, B. C., & Luoma, J. B. (2021) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2021.1971343 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Bershad, A. K., Preller, K. H., Lee, R., Keedy, S., Wren-Jarvis, J., Bremmer, M. P., & de Wit, H. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.12.007 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Livne, O., Shmulewitz, D., Walsh, C. A., & Hasin, D. S. (2022) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15987 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
The therapeutic potential of microdosing psychedelics in depression
Kuypers, K. P. C. (2020) · Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/2045125320950567 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Repeated low doses of LSD in healthy adults: A placebo‐controlled, dose–response study
de Wit, H., Molla, H. M., Bershad, A. K., Bremmer, M. P., & Lee, R. (2022) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.13143 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Rootman, J. M., Kryskow, P., Harvey, K., Stamets, P. E., Santos-Brault, E., Kuypers, K. P. C., Polito, V., Bourzat, F., & Walsh, Z. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-01811-4 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Lea, T., Amada, N. M., Jungaberle, H., Schecke, H., Scherbaum, N., & Klein, M. (2020) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-020-05477-0 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“…microdosing may play a role in improving mental health (Anderson et al. 2019a; Fadiman and Korb 2019; Hutten et al. 2019a; Kuypers et al. 2019; Lea et al. 2019; Politi and Stevenson 2019), but the results of double-blind, randomised controlled trials are needed to determine this more conclusively.”
BackgroundResultPsychedelic perceptions: mental health service user attitudes to psilocybin therapy
Corrigan, K., Haran, M., McCandliss, C., McManus, R., Cleary, S., Trant, R., Kelly, Y., Ledden, K., Rush, G., O’Keane, V., et al. (2022) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-021-02668-2 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Neural and subjective effects of inhaled N,N-dimethyltryptamine in natural settings
Pallavicini, C., Cavanna, F., Zamberlán, F., de la Fuente, L. A., Ilksoy, Y. A., Perl, Y. S., Arias, M., Romero, C., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Timmermann, C., et al. (2021) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881120981384 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“…to investigate potential anxiolytic effects of DMT. Increased absorption after psychedelic experiences in naturalistic settings has been previously demonstrated for ayahuasca (Bresnick and Levin, 2006) and for subthreshold doses of psychedelics (i.e. microdoses) (Polito and Stevenson, 2019).”
BackgroundMurray, C. H., Tare, I., Perry, C., Malina, M., Lee, R., & de Wit, H. (2021) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-021-05991-9 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Psychedelics as an emerging novel intervention in the treatment of substance use disorder: a review
Divito, A. J., & Leger, R. F. (2020) · Molecular Biology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11033-020-06009-x · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Expectancy Effects in Psychedelic Trials
Szigeti, B., & Heifets, B. D. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.02.004 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Marschall, J., Fejer, G., Lempe, P., Prochazkova, L., Kuchar, M., Hajkova, K., & van Elk, M. (2022) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811211050556 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Thus, although the baseline DASS-21 scores of our participants were in the same range as those of Polito and Stevenson (2019), we failed to see additional improvements in our participants’ depression scores after microdosing.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialHiggins, G. A., Carroll, N. K., Brown, M., MacMillan, C., Silenieks, L. B., Thevarkunnel, S., Izhakova, J., Magomedova, L., DeLannoy, I., & Sellers, E. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.640241 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“In addition to usage at psychotomimetic doses, both ketamine and psilocybin have a long history of being self-adminstered at lower doses (colloquially referred to as “microdoses”), (Johnstad, 2018; Kuypers et al., 2019; Hutten et al., 2019; Polito and Stevenson, 2019; Rosenbaum et al., 2020).”
BackgroundChen, B. K., Luna, V. M., LaGamma, C. T., Xu, X., Deng, S., Suckow, R. F., Cooper, T. B., Shah, A., Brachman, R. A., Mendez‐David, I., et al. (2020) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-020-0714-z · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Murphy, R. J., Sumner, R. L., Evans, W., Ponton, R., Ram, S., Godfrey, K., Forsyth, A., Cavadino, A., Naga, V. K., Smith, T., et al. (2023) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.03.013 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Limited acute positive mood effects have been found in microdosing RCTs (12, 14), but mood improvements have frequently been cited as a benefit in observational studies (1, 5-8, 24-26).”
Psilocybin and LSD have no long-lasting effects in an animal model of alcohol relapse
Meinhardt, M. W., Güngör, C., Skorodumov, I., Mertens, L. J., & Spanagel, R. (2020) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-020-0694-z · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Psychedelics as a Treatment for Alzheimer’s Disease Dementia
Jones, S. V., & O’Kelly, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Synaptic Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsyn.2020.00034 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“An observational study of 89 recreational users micro-dosing psychedelics found self-reported improvement across multiple psychological domains, including creativity and attention, with a sustained improvement over 6 weeks (Polito and Stevenson, 2019).”
BackgroundPsychedelic Research and the Need for Transparency: Polishing Alice’s Looking Glass
Petranker, R., Anderson, T., & Farb, N. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01681 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“A second branch of research explores psychedelics’ potential for well-being enhancement in nonclinical samples, including recent research on the growing practice of taking psychedelics in very small doses, called “microdosing” (Prochazkova et al., 2018; Anderson et al., 2019; Polito and Stevenson, 2019; Rosenbaum et a…”
BackgroundOña, G., & Bouso, J. C. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.035 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Petranker, R., Anderson, T., Maier, L. J., Barratt, M. J., Ferris, J., & WINSTOCK, A. R. (2020) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881120953994 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Another survey reported somewhat conflicting results, with people who reported microdosing with LSD or psilocybin experiencing an increase in negative emotionality, but also reduced depression and stress (Polito and Stevenson, 2019).”
BackgroundResultRootman, J. M., Kiraga, M. K., Kryskow, P., Harvey, K., Stamets, P. E., Santos-Brault, E., Kuypers, K. P. C., & Walsh, Z. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-14512-3 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Low doses of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) increase reward-related brain activity
Glazer, J. E., Murray, C. H., Nusslock, R., Lee, R., & de Wit, H. (2022) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-022-01479-y · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Demographics and drug use characteristics. hallucinatory effect [14] and within the range that is used in naturalistic settings [41].”
Microdosing psilocybin for chronic pain: a case series
Lyes, M., Yang, K. H., Castellanos, J. P., & Furnish, T. J. (2022) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002778 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
van Elk, M., Fejer, G., Lempe, P., Prochazkova, L., Kuchař, M., Hájková, K., & Marschall, J. (2021) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-021-05857-0 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Psychedelics and potential benefits in “healthy normals”: A review of the literature
Gandy, S. (2019) · Journal of Psychedelic Studies · doi:10.1556/2054.2019.029 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The Bright Side of Psychedelics: Latest Advances and Challenges in Neuropharmacology
Mastinu, A., Anyanwu, M., Carone, M., Abate, G., Bonini, S. A., Peron, G., Tirelli, E., Pucci, M., Ribaudo, G., Oselladore, E., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24021329 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Microdosing, a growing trend in the psychedelics field, is defined as recurrent administration of small doses of psychedelic drugs, with little to no identifiable acute drug effects, with the intention of improving mental health and general wellbeing, enhance cognitive performances and boost mood [79,80].”
BackgroundThe costs and benefits of psychedelics on cognition and mood
Sayalı, C., & Barrett, F. S. (2023) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2022.12.031 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Discovering the Potential Mechanisms of Medicinal Mushrooms Antidepressant Activity: A Review
Lazur, J., Hnatyk, K., Kała, K., Sułkowska‐Ziaja, K., & Muszyńska, B. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12030623 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Conclusions from observation of hippocampus and mPFC volumes in first-onset MDD are not conclusive [89].”
BackgroundHwang, Y. J., Alexander, G. C., An, H., Moore, T. J., & Mehta, H. B. (2021) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000012601 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The risk of chronic psychedelic and MDMA microdosing for valvular heart disease
Tagen, M., Mantuani, D., van Heerden, L., Holstein, A., Klumpers, L. E., & Knowles, R. G. (2023) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811231190865 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Two groups reported EC 50 values for the intracellular calcium assay in the low nM range (Porter et al., 1999; Wacker et al., 2017).”
Pestana, J., Beccaria, F., & Petrilli, E. (2020) · Drugs and Alcohol Today · doi:10.1108/dat-03-2020-0016 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Andersson, M., & Kjellgren, A. (2019) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-019-0333-3 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Szigeti, B., Nutt, D., Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Erritzøe, D. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-34938-7 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Psilocybin history, action and reaction: A narrative clinical review
Sharma, P., Nguyen, Q. A., Matthews, S. J., Carpenter, E., Matthews, D. B., Patten, C. A., & Hammond, C. J. (2023) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811231190858 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“In addition, data from three open-label non-controlled prospective studies of psilocybin microdosing have also found acute transient improvements across broad domains of psychological functioning, although notably, a non-microdosing control arm was lacking in each of these studies (Kaertner et al., 2021; Polito and St…”
BackgroundInfluentialUse of plant-based hallucinogens and dissociative agents: U.S. Time Trends, 2002–2019
Walsh, C. A., Livne, O., Shmulewitz, D., Stohl, M., & Hasin, D. S. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100454 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Dourron, H. M., Strauss, C. K., & Hendricks, P. S. (2022) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1124/pharmrev.121.000514 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Psilocybin’s effects on cognition and creativity: A scoping review
Bonnieux, J. N., VanderZwaag, B., Premji, Z., Garcia‐Romeu, A., & García-Barrera, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811231179801 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Psilocybin can also be taken in very low, sub-hallucinogenic “microdoses,” typically ranging from ~100 mg to ~500 mg of dried mushrooms (of variable potency) taken orally, or about one-tenth to one-twentieth of a macrodose (Anderson et al., 2019; Kuypers et al., 2019; Polito and Stevenson, 2019).”
BackgroundMurray, C. H., Frohlich, J., Haggarty, C. J., Tare, I., Lee, R., & de Wit, H. (2024) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-024-01809-2 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“In addition to reducing low frequency power, LSD increased high frequency gamma power.”
InfluentialLiechti, M. E., & Holze, F. (2021) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2021_270 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Microdosing Psychedelics: Current Evidence From Controlled Studies
Murphy, R. J., Muthukumaraswamy, S. D., & de Wit, H. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.01.002 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Bradshaw, A. J., Backman, T., Ramírez-Cruz, V., Forrister, D. L., Winter, J. M., Guzmán‐Dávalos, L., Furci, G., Stamets, P. E., & Dentinger, B. T. M. (2022) · Applied and Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1128/aem.01498-22 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Cuthbert, M., Haff, G. G., McMahon, J. J., Evans, M., & Comfort, P. (2023) · Strength and conditioning journal · doi:10.1519/ssc.0000000000000786 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Therefore, the aim of this review is to outline and discuss where some of these theories and concepts may or may not be appropriate for use within team sports, while also highlighting areas in which the application of microdosing requires further the underlying principles associated with…”
BackgroundPsychedelic therapy in depression and substance use disorders
Korkmaz, N. D., Çıkrıkçılı, U., Akan, M., & Yücesan, E. (2024) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.16421 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“In studies conducted by certain groups, it is noted that after the microdosing experience, people reported minimal side effects and positive returns to their general health status (Polito & Stevenson, 2019).”
Psychedelics and mindfulness: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Radakovic, C., Radaković, R., Peryer, G., & Geere, J. (2022) · Journal of Psychedelic Studies · doi:10.1556/2054.2022.00218 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Bornemann, J. (2020) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2020.1761573 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Predictors and potentiators of psychedelic-occasioned mystical experiences
Gandy, S. (2022) · Journal of Psychedelic Studies · doi:10.1556/2054.2022.00198 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…has been found to be higher in psychedelic microdosing groups compared to non-microdosing controls (Bright, Gringart, Blatchford, & Bettinson, 2021; Polito & Stevenson, 2019) and a single experience with a 25 mg/70 kg dose of psilocy-bin has been found to increase trait absorption for a minimum of…”
Psychedelic drugs for psychiatric disorders
da Costa, S. C., Oesterle, T., Rummans, T. A., Richelson, E., & Gold, M. S. (2022) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2022.120332 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Murphy, R. J., Sumner, R. L., Evans, W., Menkes, D. B., Lambrecht, I., Ponton, R., Sundram, F., Hoeh, N. R., Ram, S., Reynolds, L., et al. (2021) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-021-05243-3 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Expectancy of the positive effects of microdosing has been demonstrated among those who frequent drug use forums [20], likely inflating the benefits reported by those who learn about microdosing online, and these attitudes have been shown to correlate to positive self-reported outcomes [13], and to potentially explain…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe neurochemistry of hypnotic suggestion
Acunzo, D. J., Oakley, D. A., & Terhune, D. B. (2021) · American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis · doi:10.1080/00029157.2020.1865869 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Microdosing as a Response to the Meaning Crisis: A Qualitative Analysis
Petranker, R., Kim, J. J., & Anderson, T. (2022) · Journal of Humanistic Psychology · doi:10.1177/00221678221075076 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Set and setting in microdosing: an oft-overlooked principle
Hartogsohn, I., & Petranker, R. (2022) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06249-8 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“2021; Polito and Stevenson 2019).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPsychedelics: Science sabotaged by Social Media
Sellers, E. M., & Romach, M. K. (2023) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109426 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“A variety of benefits have been reported including improved mood, improved focus, improved energy, improved creativity, and reduced anxiety (Kuypers, 2020; Polito and Stevenson, 2019; Fadiman and Korb, 2019; Anderson et al., 2019).”
Donegan, C. J., Daldegan‐Bueno, D., Sumner, R. L., Menkes, D. B., Evans, W., Hoeh, N. R., Sundram, F., Reynolds, L., Ponton, R., Cavadino, A., et al. (2023) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-023-01399-8 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The psychedelic renaissance: the next trip for psychiatry?
Kelly, J. R., Baker, A., Babiker, M., Burke, L., Brennan, C., & O’Keane, V. (2019) · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/ipm.2019.39 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“This renaissance, and the enthusiasm among the general population (Polito and Stevenson, 2019), has left some professionals nonplussed.”
BackgroundThe altered state of consciousness induced by Δ9-THC
Murray, C. H., & Desikan, B. S. (2022) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2022.103357 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Conversely, DMN connectivity and mind-wandering were found to be reduced after psilocybin (Carhart-Harris et al., 2012; Polito & Stevenson, 2019), LSD (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016), and ayahuasca (Palhano-Fontes et al., 2015), substances known to activate 5-HT2A receptors.”
Instability and Uncertainty Are Critical for Psychotherapy: How the Therapeutic Alliance Opens Us Up
Connolly, P. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.784295 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Acute Effects of 2C-E in Humans: An Observational Study
Papaseit, E., Olesti, E., Pérez‐Mañá, C., Torrens, M., Grifell, M., Ventura, M., Pozo, Ó. J., Perna, E. B. D. S. F., Ramaekers, J. G., de la Torre, R., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.00233 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Natural language signatures of psilocybin microdosing
Sanz, C., Cavanna, F., Muller, S. L., de la Fuente, L., Zamberlán, F., Palmucci, M., Janeckova, L., Kuchař, M., Carrillo, F., García, A. M., et al. (2022) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06170-0 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…of sentiment analysis, microdosing users generally report an improvement in their mood (Anderson, Petranker, Christopher, et al., 2019; Hutten et al., 2019a; Johnstad, 2018; Lea, Amada, Jungaberle, Schecke, & Klein, 2020; Polito & Stevenson, 2019; Prochazkova et al., 2018; Rootman et al., 2021).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMacrodosing to microdosing with psychedelics: Clinical, social, and cultural perspectives
Kaypak, A. C., & Raz, A. (2022) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13634615221119386 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“However, a few studies investigated downsides and challenges regarding microdosing (Anderson, Petranker, Christopher, et al., 2019; Hutten et al., 2019; Polito & Stevenson, 2019).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMurphy, R. J., Godfrey, K. E. M., Shaw, A. D., Muthukumaraswamy, S. D., & Sumner, R. L. (2024) · BMC Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/s12868-024-00844-5 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Expectancy and unblinding have been identified in prospective studies as high within the populations who microdose, and able to affect participants’ subjective experiences [56–58].”
BackgroundIs microdosing a placebo? A rapid review of low-dose LSD and psilocybin research
Polito, V., & Liknaitzky, P. (2024) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811241254831 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…consistent reports of benefits from self-report studies (e.g., Anderson et al., 2019; Cameron et al., 2020; Hutten et al., 2019; Lea et al., 2020; Polito and Stevenson, 2019; Rootman et al., 2021, 2022) and lack of clear evidence on the role placebo in controlled studies to date, further…”
BackgroundEfficacy and safety of psilocybin for the treatment of substance use disorders: A systematic review
Meshkat, S., Malik, G., Zeifman, R. J., Swainson, J., Balachandra, K., Reichelt, A. C., Zhang, Y., Burback, L., Winkler, O., Greenshaw, A. J., et al. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106163 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Sociological investigations of human enhancement drugs: The case of microdosing psychedelics
Liokaftos, D. (2021) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103099 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Neural and subjective effects of inhaled DMT in natural settingsPreprint
Pallavicini, C., Cavanna, F., Zamberlán, F., de la Fuente, L. A., Perl, Y. S., Arias, M., Romero, C., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Timmermann, C., & Tagliazucchi, E. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.08.19.258145 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…to investigate potential anxiolytic effects of DMT. Increased absorption after psychedelic experiences in naturalistic settings has been previously demonstrated for ayahuasca (Bresnick and Levin, 2006) and for subthreshold doses of psychedelics (i.e. microdoses) (Polito and Stevenson, 2019).”
BackgroundIbogaine therapy for addiction: Consumer views from online fora
Barber, M., Gardner, J., Savic, M., & Carter, A. (2020) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102857 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Basedow, L. A., Riemer, T., Reiche, S., Kreutz, R. H., & Majić, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.739966 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Additionally, SPs have been associated with persisting changes in traits such as openness to experience, neuroticism, mindfulness, and optimism (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016; Erritzoe et al., 2018; Griffiths et al., 2018; Polito and Stevenson, 2019; Madsen et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBright, S., Gringart, E., Blatchford, E., & Bettinson, S. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1882266 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“This might be why our findings were not consistent with the findings of previous researchers who found that yoga reduced anxiety and depression (Khalsa et al., 2009; Lin et al., 2011), and that self-reported microdosing decreased depressive symptoms (Polito & Stevenson, 2019).”
InfluentialKeeping the promise: a critique of the current state of microdosing research
Petranker, R., Anderson, T., Fewster, E. C., Aberman, Y., Hazan, M., Gaffrey, M. S., & Seli, P. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1217102 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“However, puzzlingly, microdosing appears to show contradictory effects, for instance, in that it has been found to both increase and decrease mood, anxiety, headaches, and attention [for examples, compare (8, 9)].”
BackgroundKinderlehrer, D. A. (2025) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s500337 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“122 The investigators were assessing psychological functioning and excluded participants with self-reported mental illness.”
A dangerous method? Psychedelic therapy at Modum Bad, Norway, 1961–76
Johnstad, P. G. (2020) · History of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0957154x19894537 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“The lower end of this range corresponds to what is today known as a microdose (Anderson et al., 2019; Johnstad, 2018; Polito and Stevenson, 2019) and is probably what Johnsen referred to as ‘extremely small initial doses’, while the top doses were apparently reserved for attempts to induce ‘cosmic…”
Backgroundvan den Berg, M., Magaraggia, I., Schreiber, R., Hillhouse, T. M., & Porter, J. H. (2022) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06106-8 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Yet, there seems to be no difference between experienced and naive users in the positive expectations about the effects of intermittent low dosing of psychedelics (Polito and Stevenson 2019).”
BackgroundBrain Networks, Neurotransmitters and Psychedelics: Towards a Neurochemistry of Self-Awareness
Mograbi, D. C., Rodrigues, R. F. S., Bienemann, B., & Huntley, J. D. (2024) · Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s11910-024-01353-y · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“A study by Polito & Stevenson [135] explored responses to the Sense of Agency Rating Scale (SOARS [136]) in a sample of psychedelic microdose users.”
BackgroundDaldegan‐Bueno, D., Donegan, C. J., Forsyth, A., Sumner, R. L., Murphy, R. J., Menkes, D. B., Evans, W., Hoeh, N. R., Sundram, F., Reynolds, L., et al. (2024) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-024-08384-3 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Although the reasons for micro-dosing psychedelics vary, microdosing as an attempt to self-treat or alleviate depressive symptoms appears to be one of the most frequent motivators [10, 11].”
BackgroundGlobal Drug SurveyPreprint
Petranker, R., Anderson, T., Maier, L. J., Barratt, M. J., Ferris, J., & WINSTOCK, A. R. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xb8ve · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Dressler, H. M., Bright, S. J., & Polito, V. (2021) · Journal of Psychedelic Studies · doi:10.1556/2054.2021.00157 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Contrary to previous findings by Polito and Stevenson (2019), we observed a significant decrease in neuroticism.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAccounting for Microdosing Classic Psychedelics
Beaton, B., Copes, H., Webb, M. E., Hochstetler, A., & Hendricks, P. S. (2019) · Journal of Drug Issues · doi:10.1177/0022042619871008 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
- Authors
- Polito, V., & Stevenson, R. J.
- Affiliations
- Macquarie University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Polito, Vince
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2019-02-06
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- e0211023
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6364961
- OpenAlex
- W2895986834
- Cited by
- 235
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 34.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Keywords
- microdosing, psychedelics, psychological functioning, mood, depression, stress, attention, distractibility, absorption, neuroticism, creativity, mystical experience, sense of agency, expectancy bias, mental health, well-being
- MeSH terms
- Patient Reported Outcome Measures, Adult, Attention, Culture, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Female, Hallucinogens, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Personality, Psychometrics, Empirical Research, Young Adult
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