The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs.
Open accessAbstract
Entropy is a dimensionless quantity that is used for measuring uncertainty about the state of a system but it can also imply physical qualities, where high entropy is synonymous with high disorder. Entropy is applied here in the context of states of consciousness and their associated neurodynamics, with a particular focus on the psychedelic state. The psychedelic state is considered an exemplar of a primitive or primary state of consciousness that preceded the development of modern, adult, human, normal waking consciousness. Based on neuroimaging data with psilocybin, a classic psychedelic drug, it is argued that the defining feature of "primary states" is elevated entropy in certain aspects of brain function, such as the repertoire of functional connectivity motifs that form and fragment across time. Indeed, since there is a greater repertoire of connectivity motifs in the psychedelic state than in normal waking consciousness, this implies that primary states may exhibit "criticality," i.e., the property of being poised at a "critical" point in a transition zone between order and disorder where certain phenomena such as power-law scaling appear. Moreover, if primary states are critical, then this suggests that entropy is suppressed in normal waking consciousness, meaning that the brain operates just below criticality. It is argued that this entropy suppression furnishes normal waking consciousness with a constrained quality and associated metacognitive functions, including reality-testing and self-awareness. It is also proposed that entry into primary states depends on a collapse of the normally highly organized activity within the default-mode network (DMN) and a decoupling between the DMN and the medial temporal lobes (which are normally significantly coupled). These hypotheses can be tested by examining brain activity and associated cognition in other candidate primary states such as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and early psychosis and comparing these with non-primary states such as normal waking consciousness and the anaesthetized state.
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Psychedelic consciousness, in which the mechanisms of self-binding are compromised, is usually described as a state of increased or intensified consciousness.
“Indeed, psychedelic consciousness, in which the mechanisms of self-binding are compromised, is usually described as a state of increased or intensified consciousness, leading Carhart-Harris et al. (2014) to suggest that self-referential processes constrain consciousness rather than enabling it.”
From Self unbound: ego dissolution in psychedelic experience (2017) · cites this paper as Carhart-Harris et al. (2014)
In “Introducing primary consciousness” (page unavailable), the paper says the ego’s entropy-suppressing function may narrow consciousness. “The default mode network and the ego” links psilocybin to ego disintegration. These passages support the suggestion that self-related processes can constrain consciousness, but the paper describes psychedelic consciousness as higher in entropy, not as usually experienced or described as more intense consciousness. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDuring psychedelic experience, fMRI shows the default mode network is modulated, sharply reducing blood flow and connection within its nodes, leading to decreased functional connectivity within the DMN and increased between-network connectivity.
“It has been demonstrated with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that during psychedelic experience, the DMN is modulated, which sharply reduces blood flow and connection within its nodes [46], leading to decreased functional connectivity within the DMN and increased between-network connectivity [47, 48].”
From Mindfulness meditation and psychedelics: potential synergies and commonalities (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe Default Mode Network is usually active in meta-cognition, day-dreaming, and reflecting on memories, but is apparently disabled by psychedelics.
“This Default Mode Network is usually active in meta-cognition, day-dreaming, reflecting on memories, but is apparently disabled by psychedelics (Carhart-Harris et al., 2014).”
From The therapeutic potentials of Ayahuasca: possible effects against various diseases of civilization (2016) · cites this paper as Carhart-Harris et al., 2014
Psychedelics alter relaxed brain function by reducing cerebral blood flow and oscillatory power in brain areas of the Default Mode Network that are typically synchronized and functionally connected.
“Psychedelics alter this relaxed brain function by reducing cerebral blood flow and the oscillatory power in brain areas of the Default Mode Network that are typically synchronized and functionally connected.”
From The therapeutic potentials of Ayahuasca: possible effects against various diseases of civilization (2016) · cites this paper as Carhart-Harris et al., 2014
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“Several plausible mechanisms of hallucinogen-facilitated treatments have been proposed (Bogenschutz and Pommy, 2012; Carhart-Harris et al., 2012, 2014; Ross, 2012; Vollenweider and Kometer, 2010).”
BackgroundNeural correlates of the LSD experience revealed by multimodal neuroimaging
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Muthukumaraswamy, S., Roseman, L., Kaelen, M., Droog, W., Murphy, K., Tagliazucchi, E., Schenberg, E. E., Nest, T., Orban, C., et al. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1518377113 · Cited by 859 · see citing works
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Serotonin and brain function: a tale of two receptors
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Psychedelics and Psychedelic-Assisted Psychotherapy
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Understanding the Higher-Order Approach to Consciousness
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Psychedelic drugs: neurobiology and potential for treatment of psychiatric disorders
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Psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression: fMRI-measured brain mechanisms
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Self-citationMapping the self in the brain's default mode network
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The entropic brain - revisited
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Self-citationIncreased global functional connectivity correlates with LSD-induced ego dissolution
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Ego-dissolution and psychedelics: validation of the ego-dissolution inventory (EDI).
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Psychedelics, meditation, and self-consciousness
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Increased spontaneous MEG signal diversity for psychoactive doses of ketamine, LSD and psilocybin
Schartner, M. M., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Barrett, A. B., Seth, A. K., & Muthukumaraswamy, S. D. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep46421 · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Self-citationEnhanced repertoire of brain dynamical states during the psychedelic experience
Tagliazucchi, E., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Leech, R., Nutt, D., & Chialvo, D. R. (2014) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22562 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
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Emotions and brain function are altered up to one month after a single high dose of psilocybin.
Barrett, F. S., Doss, M. K., Sepeda, N. D., Pekar, J. J., & Griffiths, R. R. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-59282-y · Cited by 375 · see citing works
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Psychedelics as Medicines: An Emerging New Paradigm
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“…al, 2015; Griffiths et al., 2006, 2011) or spiritual (Kometer et al., 2015) experiences, changes in self-referential processing or “ego dissolution” (Carhart-Harris et al., 2014; Tagliazucchi et al., 2016), altered social processing (Preller et al., 2016), visual imagery (Kaelen et al., 2016),…”
Doss, M. K., Považan, M., Rosenberg, M. D., Sepeda, N. D., Davis, A. K., Finan, P. H., Smith, G. S., Pekar, J. J., Barker, P. B., Griffiths, R. R., et al. (2021) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-021-01706-y · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Finding the self by losing the self: neural correlates of ego-dissolution under psilocybin
Lebedev, A. V., Lövdén, M., Rosenthal, G., Feilding, A., Nutt, D. J., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2015) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22833 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Self-citationLSD enhances suggestibility in healthy volunteers
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Kaelen, M., Whalley, M. G., Bolstridge, M., Feilding, A., & Nutt, D. J. (2015) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3714-z · Cited by 320 · see citing works
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“The entropic brain hypothesis of Carhart-Harris et al [51] states that there is correlation between the degree of overall randomness (entropy, differentiation) in brain dynamics and ‘vividness of cognition’, locating brain states such as coma, anaesthesia and deep sleep at relatively low entropy, wakeful rest at inter…”
BackgroundColombo, M. A., Napolitani, M., Boly, M., Gosseries, O., Casarotto, S., Rosanova, M., Brichant, J. F., Boveroux, P., Rex, S., Laureys, S., et al. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.01.024 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
LSD‐induced entropic brain activity predicts subsequent personality change
Lebedev, A. V., Kaelen, M., Lövdén, M., Nilsson, J., Feilding, A., Nutt, D. J., & Carhart‐Harris, R. L. (2016) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23234 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Neural correlates of the DMT experience assessed with multivariate EEG
Timmermann, C., Roseman, L., Schartner, M., Milliere, R., Williams, L. T. J., Erritzoe, D., Muthukumaraswamy, S., Ashton, M., Bendrioua, A., Kaur, O., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51974-4 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Self-citationdos Santos, R. G., Osório, F. L., Crippa, J. A. S., Riba, J., Zuardi, A. W., & Hallak, J. E. C. (2016) · Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/2045125316638008 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
The paradoxical psychological effects of lysergic acid diethylamide LSD
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Kaelen, M., Bolstridge, M., Williams, T. M., Williams, L. T., Underwood, R., Feilding, A., & Nutt, D. J. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715002901 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf unbound: ego dissolution in psychedelic experience
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“This connects with earlier findings of MTL–DMN decoupling under psilocybin (Carhart-Harris et al. 2014)—though in the earlier studies, this decoupling did not significantly predict ego dissolution, while in the Lebedev et al.”
ResultConsciousness-specific dynamic interactions of brain integration and functional diversity
Luppi, A. I., Craig, M. M., Pappas, I., Finoia, P., Williams, G. B., Allanson, J., Pickard, J. D., Owen, A. M., Naci, L., Menon, D. K., et al. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-12658-9 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Classic Hallucinogens and Mystical Experiences: Phenomenology and Neural Correlates
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Psilocybin desynchronizes the human brain
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Effective connectivity changes in LSD-induced altered states of consciousness in humans
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Psychedelics and connectedness
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Discovery of key whole-brain transitions and dynamics during human wakefulness and non-REM sleep
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Self-citationLong-term effects of psychedelic drugs: A systematic review
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Computational models link cellular mechanisms of neuromodulation to large-scale neural dynamics
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The Therapeutic Potential of Psilocybin
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The therapeutic potentials of Ayahuasca: possible effects against various diseases of civilization
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A systematic study of microdosing psychedelics
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Phenomenology, Structure, and Dynamic of Psychedelic States
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Computational network biology: Data, models, and applications
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Dynamical exploration of the repertoire of brain networks at rest is modulated by psilocybin
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Human brain effects of DMT assessed via EEG-fMRI
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Hard criteria for empirical theories of consciousness
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“…(and not unconscious) states and their changes, such as how consciousness changes under the influence of LSD, other psychotropic substances or meditation (Carhart-Harris et al., 2014; Lutz et al., 2007), or track changes in body ownership and map them to brain states (Faivre et al., 2015).”
BackgroundClinical applications of hallucinogens: a review
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Why Brain Criticality Is Clinically Relevant: A Scoping Review
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Predictive uncertainty in auditory sequence processing
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Changes in EEG multiscale entropy and power‐law frequency scaling during the human sleep cycle
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Unifying Theories of Psychedelic Drug Effects
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Brain mechanisms in religion and spirituality: An integrative predictive processing framework
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Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy
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Exploring the effect of microdosing psychedelics on creativity in an open-label natural setting
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LSD alters dynamic integration and segregation in the human brain
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Entropy and the Brain: An Overview
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Predictive processing as a systematic basis for identifying the neural correlates of consciousness
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Ketamine for the treatment of addiction: evidence and potential mechanisms
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Dimensions of consciousness and the psychedelic state
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Psychedelic Drugs in Biomedicine
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Ayahuasca’s ‘afterglow’: improved mindfulness and cognitive flexibility in ayahuasca drinkers
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Ethics and ego dissolution: the case of psilocybin
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Dynamic functional connectivity and brain metastability during altered states of consciousness
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Consciousness is supported by near-critical slow cortical electrodynamics
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The integrated information theory of consciousness: A case of mistaken identity
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Harmonic brain modes: a unifying framework for linking space and time in brain dynamics
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LSD modulates music-induced imagery via changes in parahippocampal connectivity
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- Authors
- Carhart-Harris, R. L., Leech, R., Hellyer, P. J., Shanahan, M., Feilding, A., Tagliazucchi, E., Chialvo, D. R., & Nutt, D.
- Affiliations
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Beckley Foundation (GB)
- Goethe University Frankfurt (DE)
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (AR)
- Corresponding author
- Carhart-Harris, Robin L.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2014
- Volume
- 8
- Pages
- 20-20
- ISSN
- 1662-5161 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3909994
- OpenAlex
- W2109543774
- Cited by
- 1,252
- References
- 255
- Citations by year
- 2026: 145 · 2025: 169 · 2024: 169 · 2023: 157 · 2022: 152 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 71 · 2018: 59 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 49.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Americanae (AECID Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Greater South Information System
- Funders
- Medical Research Council (MR/J00460X/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
- Keywords
- entropy (information theory), states of consciousness, psychedelic states, psilocybin, criticality, power-law scaling, default mode network, medial temporal lobe, self-awareness, reality testing, metacognition, REM sleep, early psychosis, anesthesia
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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