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Per- and Polyfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFAS) cycling within Michigan: Contaminated sites, landfills and wastewater treatment plants
Abstract
Concentrations of Per- and Polyfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFAS) from public and private sources in Michigan compiled for wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (influent, effluent, biosolids), contaminated sites, and landfill leachates reveal complex cycling within the natural and engineered environment. Analysis of 171 contaminated sites in Michigan by source release indicate four dominant PFAS sources - landfills, aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF), metal platers, and automotive/metal stamping - account for 75% of the contamination. Diverse chemical signatures were observed for leachates collected from 19 landfills (mostly type II municipal) with the dominant PFAS ranging from perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) to shorter-chained compounds, perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), and perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS). Analysis of PFAS carbon chain length as a function of landfill age shows the transition of C8s in leachate from older landfills to C4s and C6s in younger landfills, consistent with the phasing out and replacement of C8s. PFAS mass flux in leachate for landfills studied range between 5 - 2,000 g/yr and are highest for active landfills, which generate greater leachate volumes and contain fresh PFAS wastes. Detailed study of 10 WWTPs with industrial pretreatment programs indicate numerous chemical transformations across the plants that yield effluent PFAS concentrations as much as 19 times greater than influent, attributed to transformations of unmeasured precursors in the influent to measured, stable PFAS in the effluent. PFOA, PFHxA, perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA), PFBA, and PFBS show the greatest increases across the plant ranging from 20% to nearly 2,000%. PFOS concentrations decreased across 6 WWTPs, consistent with a strong tendency to adsorb onto biosolids. Estimated mass of discharge of (mostly unregulated) PFAS from WWTPs to receiving waters range from 40 g/yr to 128 kg/yr.
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“PFAS contamination was lower than those found in WWTPs in Michigan (Helmer et al., 2022) and in Southeast United States (Kim et al., 2022), showing in both cases an increase of concentration across WWTPs after biological treatments (Helmer et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2022).”
From Occurrence of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in wastewater treatment plants in Northern Italy (2023) · cites this paper as Helmer et al., 2022
In the citing paper
“Given that some municipal WWTPs receive landfill leachate [46,77], landfills could contribute to the increasing detection of FOSA in municipal wastewater.”
From Investigating the extent of PFAS contamination in the Upper Danube Basin across environmental compartments (2025) · cites this paper as [46]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Helmer, R. W., Reeves, D. M., & Cassidy, D. P.
- Affiliations
- Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy (US)
- Western Michigan University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Reeves, Donald M.
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-02
- Volume
- 210
- Pages
- 117983
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4200018411
- Cited by
- 164
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 32 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 13
- FWCI
- 8.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Western Michigan University
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Landfill Environmental Impact Studies
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, landfill leachate, wastewater treatment plant effluent, biosolids, contaminated sites, aqueous film-forming foam, metal plating, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, PFBS, perfluorohexanoic acid, Michigan
- MeSH terms
- Fluorocarbons, Michigan, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Purification, Waste Disposal Facilities
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