A mass estimate of perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) release from Australian wastewater treatment plants
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have been used in large quantities for a variety of applications in Australian industry and household products. Through the course of their everyday use, PFASs enter the wastewater stream however current treatment processes provide only partial removal of these chemicals from wastewater. The release of treated effluent and re-use of biosolids represents an important point source of PFASs into the Australian environment yet the scale of PFAS release from Australian WWTPs is unknown. For the first time, influent, effluent and biosolids samples from 14 WWTPs across Australia were assessed for 9 PFASs and the national loads of these PFASs released from WWTPs estimated. Ʃ9PFASs ranged from 0.98 to 440 ng/L (influent), 21-560 ng/L (effluent) and 5.2-150 ng/g (biosolids). National loads of PFOA and PFOS in effluent were estimated at 65 kg and 26 kg per annum respectively. In biosolids, annual loads were estimated at 2 kg and 8 kg respectively. The continued detection of PFOS over a decade after its phase out, the increasing use of PFOS alternatives together with their resistance to degradation processes suggests that PFASs will be a priority for regulators and waste management to prevent further contamination of Australia's water resources.
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Mean concentrations of seven PFCAs (C6-C12) and two PFSAs (C4 and C6) in Australian WWTP influents and effluents were 0.3-20 ng/L and 0.11-25 ng/L, respectively.
“Mean concentrations of seven PFCAs (C6eC12) and two PFSAs (C4 and C6) in Australian wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influents and effluents were found to be 0.3e20 ng/L and 0.11e25 ng/L, respectively [42].”
From Worldwide trends in tracing poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the environment (2019) · cites this paper as [42]
Oasis HLB series or Strata-X cartridges tend to be employed for analysis of diverse target compounds.
“Oasis HLB series or Strata-X cartridges (Phenomenex, Torrance, CA, USA) tend to be employed for analysis of diverse target compounds [7,9,15,42,45].”
From Worldwide trends in tracing poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the environment (2019) · cites this paper as [42]
Mean concentrations of PFAS in aqueous samples were similar to concentrations previously reported for Australian WWTP aqueous samples.
“Mean concentrations of PFAS in aqueous samples were similar to concentrations previously reported for Australian WWTP aqueous samples [37, 41, 43].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [37]
Australian WWTPs have discharged an estimated 33 kg PFOS and 67 kg PFOA annually.
“An Australian-wide study measuring nine PFAS in WWTP effluent (range from n. d. to 240 ng L−1) and biosolids, sampled in 2016, estimated that Australian WWTPs have discharged an estimated 33 kg PFOS and 67 kg PFOA, annually [37].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [37]
In Australian WWTPs, temporal variation of PFAS in influent and effluent has been shown to be low.
“In Australian WWTPs, temporal variation of PFAS in influent [43] and effluent [37] has been shown to be low; with observed temporal variation in influent being more likely from pulse release as opposed to seasonal factors [43].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [37]
In the 2014 study, they estimated a national ∑9PFAS discharge from Australian WWTPs as 175 kg per year in Australian WWTP effluent.
“In their study, they estimated a national ∑9PFAS discharge from Australian WWTPs as 175 kg per year in Australian WWTP effluent [37].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [37]
PFOS and PFOA concentrations were similar to those measured in 2014 from a study of nine PFAS in effluent from 14 Australian WWTPs.
“PFOS and PFOA concentrations were similar to those measured in 2014 from a study of nine PFAS in effluent from in 14 Australian WWTPs [37].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [37]
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- Authors
- Gallen, C., Eaglesham, G., Drage, D., Nguyen, T. H., & Mueller, J. F.
- Affiliations
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gallen, C.
- Venue
- Chemosphere
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-10
- Volume
- 208
- Pages
- 975-983
- ISSN
- 0045-6535 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2807088657
- Semantic Scholar
- 1682b7bda022f2e608444c1ee6200e9f42ddc240
- Cited by
- 273
- References
- 10
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 2 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 10.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Chemosphere (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Queensland Department of Health
- Australian Government Department of the Environment
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
- Keywords
- perfluorinated compounds, PFAS, wastewater treatment plants, PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid, biosolids, treated effluent, PFAS alternatives, water pollution, Australia
- MeSH terms
- Australia, Fluorocarbons, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Waste Management, Wastewater
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