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Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation
Open accessAbstract
An exacerbated physiological response to stress is associated with the development of stress-related disorders (e.g., depression and anxiety disorders). Recently, it has been proposed that individuals with high expectancies of being able to deal with stressful situations will activate regulatory mechanisms during the anticipation of the stressful event that would improve stress regulation. To test this hypothesis, 52 women in young adulthood (M = 21.06; SD = 2.58) anticipated and performed a laboratory-based stress task after receiving positive or negative feedback on their abilities to deal with stressful events. Heart rate variability and salivary cortisol were assessed throughout the experimental protocol. Participants receiving positive feedback (i.e., High Expectancy group) showed a more positive anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal (i.e., they anticipated the stress task as less threatening/challenging, and they perceived that they were more able to deal with it), and they showed a lower cortisol response to stress. Moreover, a more positive anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal was associated with better anticipatory stress regulation (indexed as less decrease in heart rate variability), leading to a lower cortisol response. Our results indicate that people with positive expectancy initiate mechanisms of anticipatory stress regulation that enhance the regulation of the physiological stress response. Expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation may be key mechanisms in the development and treatment of stress-related disorders.
Verified 2026-10-09 · 1 reference not checked yet
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TL;DR
In a laboratory stress study with 52 young women, positive expectancy feedback led to more positive anticipatory cognitive appraisal and, after controlling for reflection, lower cortisol response to stress than negative expectancy feedback. Mediation suggested that more negative appraisal predicted worse anticipatory HRV regulation, which in turn predicted higher cortisol reactivity.
Key findings
- The Low Expectancy group showed higher primary appraisal (t(50)=2.25, p=0.029, d=0.31), lower secondary appraisal (t(50)=-2.04, p=0.047, d=0.28), and more negative global anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal (t(50)=-2.46, p=0.017, d=0.34) than the High Expectancy group.
- In unadjusted t-tests, the Low Expectancy group had higher cortisol AUCi (mean=-1.31, SD=111.25 vs. High mean=-42.77, SD=71.15) and cortisol reactivity (mean=0.550, SD=0.49 vs. High mean=-0.375, SD=0.29), but these differences were not statistically significant (AUCi: t(44.39)=1.61, p=0.114, d=0.22; reactivity: t(50)=1.48, p=0.141, d=0.21). After controlling for reflection, the Low Expectancy group showed significantly higher AUCi (F(1,49)=4.87, p=0.032, ηp²=0.09) and cortisol reactivity (F(1,49)=4.42, p=0.041, ηp²=0.08).
- No significant group differences were found for HRV response: Group F(1,49)=0.54, p=0.468, ηp²=0.01; Time × Group F(2.03,99.42)=0.79, p=0.460, ηp²=0.02. Mood changes over time were significant for several VAS scales, but Time × Group interactions were not significant for the nine VASs (ps>0.115).
- Mediation: more negative anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal was associated with larger HRV decreases during anticipation (b=0.370, p=0.004), and larger HRV decreases were associated with higher cortisol reactivity (b=-0.357, p=0.030). The indirect effect was significant for cortisol reactivity (Indirect effect=-0.133, SE=0.071) but not for AUCi in the main analysis (Indirect effect=-0.124, SE=0.072, 95% CI=-0.280 to 0.006); supplementary analyses including participants who suspected the manipulation reported significant indirect effects for both cortisol reactivity and AUCi.
Methods
- Experimental study with healthy female undergraduates from Ghent University, all taking hormonal contraceptives. Sixty-seven women participated; final main analyses included 52 participants (High Expectancy n=25, Low Expectancy n=27) after exclusions.
- Expectancy was manipulated by giving positive or negative feedback about participants’ ability to deal with socially stressful situations. Participants then completed a modified Trier Social Stress Test with a 15-min anticipatory phase followed by a free speech and arithmetic task.
- Measures included salivary cortisol at six time points, HRV (RMSSD) at baseline, anticipation, stress, and recovery, the Primary Appraisal Secondary Appraisal scale for anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal, and Visual Analogue Scales for mood. Analyses used t-tests, mixed ANOVAs, ANCOVAs controlling for general self-efficacy and reflection, and PROCESS mediation models.
Limitations
- The paper states that only women taking hormonal contraceptives were included, which may reduce generalizability, and that the groups were not assessed for similar levels of social anxiety.
- The authors note that hormonal contraceptives reduce the cortisol response to stress and that the TSST version used had moderate-low stress severity, which may have contributed to the blunted cortisol response in the High Expectancy group.
- Evident from the text: the final sample was small (52), seven participants who disbelieved the expectancy feedback were excluded from the main analyses, and the main unadjusted cortisol group differences were non-significant, only emerging after covarying reflection.
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37 Own result · 36 Not checked yet · 15 Own method · 15 Own interpretation · 1 Supported so far · 1 No basis given
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In the paper
“As such, previous research has highlighted the relevance of stress anticipation in the development of stress-related disorders (Brosschot et al., 2006;Brosschot et al., 2017).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Brosschot et al., 2006 source
- Supportedcites Brosschot et al., 2017 source
Section 4, “Predicting stressors and recognizing safety” (page unavailable), describes predictability as an important model for stress, depression, and anxiety, and says uncertainty sustains stress responses between stressors. The paper’s opening discussion links chronic physiological stress responses to disease. Together, these passages support the broad claim that anticipation is relevant to stress-related disorders. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Moreover, a more positive anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal was associated with better anticipatory stress regulation (indexed as less decrease in heart rate variability), leading to a lower cortisol response.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Abstract
plaincorrelationaln = 52- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The factor Group (High Expectancy vs Low Expectancy) (F(1,49)=0.54,p=0.468, hp 2 =0.01), and the interaction between Time and Group were not statistically significant (F(2.03,99.42)=0.79,p=0.460, hp 2 =0.02).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“No significant relationships were observed between the anticipatory HRV response and brooding (r=-0.052,p=0.716), reflection (r=-0.047,p=0.739), perceived stress (r=-0.217,p=0.122), self-esteem (r=-0.032,p=0.822), and depression (r=-0.236,p=0.092) 5 .”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Although the Low expectancy group showed a larger decrease in HRV from baseline to anticipation (Low Expectancy: mean=-0.104,SEM=0.039,High Expectancy: mean=-0.58,SEM=0.041), the differences between groups were not statistically significant (F(1,49)=0.66,p=0.419, hp 2 =0.01).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants receiving positive feedback (i.e., High Expectancy group) showed a more positive anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal (i.e., they anticipated the stress task as less threatening/challenging, and they perceived that they were more able to deal with it), and they showed a lower cortisol response to stress.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Abstract
plaindirectn = 52- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“HRV showed a significant decrease from the habituation phase to the anticipation of the stress task (p=0.024,dav=0.18).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants receiving positive feedback (i.e., High Expectancy group) showed a more positive anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal (i.e., they anticipated the stress task as less threatening/challenging, and they perceived that they were more able to deal with it), and they showed a lower cortisol response to stress.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Abstract
plaincorrelationaln = 52- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These analyses showed that general self-efficacy was significantly correlated with the anticipatory HRV response (r=0.323,p=0.020)”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Also, HRV was lower during the stress task than during the anticipation phase (p>0.001,dav=0.81).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- Probably not a substantial claim. 26
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In the paper
“No significant differences were observed between the High Expectancy and Low Expectancy groups in age, body mass index, subjective socioeconomic status (assessed using the subjective socioeconomic status scale: Adler et al., 2000), and smoking, and their scores in depression symptoms, reflection, brooding, perceived stress in the past month, self-esteem, and general self-efficacy (all ps>0.102).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.1. Demographics and baseline questionnaires
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The final sample included in the analyses was composed of 25 participants in the High Expectancy group, and 27 in the Low Expectancy group.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.7. Data management and statistical analyses
plainn = 25- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, the Low Expectancy group show higher AUCi (F(1,49)=4.87,p=0.032, hp 2 =0.09; Figure 3B), and cortisol reactivity (F(1,49)=4.42,p=0.041, hp 2 =0.08; Figure 3C), than the High Expectancy group.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the analyses with AUCi and cortisol reactivity, the Low Expectancy group showed higher values than the High Expectancy group (for AUCi, Low Expectancy: mean=-1.31,SD=111.25,High Expectancy: mean=-42.77,SD=71.15; for cortisol Reactivity, Low Expectancy: mean=0.550,SD=0.49,High Expectancy: mean=-0.375,SD=0.29), however, the differences were not statistically significant (AUCi: t(44.39)=1.61,p=0.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“and that reflection was significantly associated with both AUCi (r=-0.274,p=0.049) and cortisol reactivity (r=-0.281,p=0.044).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Finally, seven participants indicated that they did not believe the feedback used to manipulate expectancy.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.7. Data management and statistical analyses
hedgedn = 7- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Low Expectancy group showed higher primary appraisal (t(50)=2.25,p=0.029, d=0.31) lower secondary appraisal (t(50)=-2.04,p=0.047,d=0.28),and more negative anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal, (t(50)=-2.46,p=0.017, d=0.34)”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.2. Anticipatory cognitive appraisal
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Moreover, worse anticipatory stress regulation was associated with a higher cortisol reactivity and (in the supplementary material) to higher AUCi.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the whole sample, the stress task provoked changes in self-reported negative and positive affect; however, both groups showed a similar psychological stress response.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the stress task provoked a psychological and cardiovascular response in both groups, it moderately activated the HPA axis in the Low Expectancy, but not in the High Expectancy group.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The total effect (i.e., effect of cognitive stress appraisal on cortisol reactivity without taking into account the anticipatory HRV response), and the direct effect (i.e., effect of cognitive stress appraisal on cortisol reactivity controlling for the anticipatory HRV response) were not significant (Total effect=-0.054,SE=0.144, 95% CI=-0.322 to 0.235; Direct effect=0.070,SE=0.151, 95% CI=-0.234”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.5. Mediation analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Under stressful conditions, the hypothalamuspituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is activated, resulting in an increase in cortisol secretion that peaks between 20 and 40 min after initiation of the stressful event (Dickerson et al., 2004).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dickerson et al., 2004 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“De Raedt and Hooley (2016) suggest that a proactive anticipation of the stressful situation (e.g., using effective strategies of emotion regulation during stress anticipation) will be associated with a sustained anticipatory activity of the DLPFC.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites De Raedt and Hooley (2016)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
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In the paper
“Inability to handle everyday stress leads to exacerbated physiological responses and is associated with the development and course of adverse long-term health outcomes, including a wide range of psychological disorders such as major depression, substance abuse, and anxiety disorders (Duffing et al., 2014;McEwen, 2008;Sinha, 2001).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, it has been proposed that, when a stressful situation is anticipated, individuals make behavioral, cognitive, and physiological adjustments that facilitate the process of coping with the upcoming stressor (Pulopulos et al., 2018a;Schulkin, 2011;Schulkin et al., 1994;Turan et al., 2015).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The NFRE proposes that, when a stressful event is anticipated, individuals with high expectancies of being able to deal with the future situation successfully will engage in a proactive stress anticipation (i.e., anticipatory stress regulation).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites De Raedt and Hooley (2016)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
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In the paper
“There are large inter-individual differences in the cortisol response to stress, and it has been proposed that cortisol and the activity of the HPA axis play a central role in the onset and maintenance of stress-related psychological illnesses such as depression and anxiety disorders (Faravelli et al., 2012;Herbert, 2013;Morris et al., 2012).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“High levels of cortisol have been associated with a decreased dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) activity, and a prolonged activation of the amygdala, a deregulation which may lead to reduced abilities to regulate emotion, sustained negative mood and may (hyper)activate the HPA axis during the confrontation with future stressful events (De Raedt and Koster, 2010).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites De Raedt and Koster, 2010 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As proposed by several authors, an increase in DLPFC activity may reduce the HPA axis response to stress through indirect and inhibitory connections with the amygdala (Baeken et al., 2010(Baeken et al., , 2014;;Herman et al., 2005).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
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In the paper
“The starting time was counterbalanced, and there were no significant differences between groups in the time when they started the session (χ 2 =0.265, p=0.876,Phi=0.07).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.6. Procedure
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“The conclusions of the study are the same if pNN50 is used in the analyses.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.4. Physiological stress response
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants were selected according to the following criteria: no use of medication that may affect cortisol levels, cognitive and cardiovascular activity; no current (or history of) neurological or psychiatric illness; and smoking less than ten cigarettes per day.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.1. Participants.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Participants were asked to sleep as usual and to abstain from alcohol and heavy physical exercise for 24 hours before the session.Additionally, they were instructed to drink only water, not eat, smoke, brush their teeth or take any stimulants (such as coffee, cola, caffeine, tea or chocolate) two hours before the session.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.6. Procedure
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Importantly, in previous studies it has been demonstrated that depression symptoms, rumination, trait self-efficacy, self-esteem, and perceived stress may affect the HRV and cortisol response to stress (e.g., Chopra et al., 2009;Kemp et al., 2010;Key et al., 2008;O'Donnell et al., 2008;Pruessner et al., 2005;Puig-Perez et al., 2016;Salvador and Costa, 2009;Schönfeld et al., 2007;Schull et al., 201”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“indicating that the Low Expectancy group perceived the situation as more threatening and challenging, and they perceived that they have fewer resources to deal with the stressful situation than the High Expectancy group.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.2. Anticipatory cognitive appraisal
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When necessary, we applied the Greenhouse-Geisser correction to ensure the assumption of sphericity.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.7. Data management and statistical analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“High HRV is considered a marker of emotion regulation and stress adaptability, and it has been associated with increased PFC activity (Makovac et al., 2017;Park et al., 2014;Thayer et al., 2012;Vanderhasselt et al., 2015).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As proposed by Lazarus (2001), primary and secondary appraisal are interdependent, they have a mutual influence (e.g., a low secondary appraisal can only be interpreted if scores in primary appraisal are taken into account), and they are parts of a common process known as anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lazarus (2001) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“We decided to exclude participants who performed a similar stress task in previous experiments because of the well-known habituation of the HPA axis response to the TSST (Schommer et al., 2003).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.7. Data management and statistical analyses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schommer et al., 2003 source
boosteddirectn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Afterwards, the analyses were repeated including the participants who suspected that the feedback used to manipulate expectancy was part of the manipulation of the study (High Expectancy group=29, Low Expectancy group=30) (see supplementary material) 4 .”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.7. Data management and statistical analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Before coming to the lab and independently of their response to the questionnaire, participants were randomly assigned to the High Expectancy or Low Expectancy group.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.6. Procedure
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The participants provided written informed consent, and the study was approved by the faculty ethical committee at Ghent University.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.6. Procedure
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results suggest that people with negative expectancies concerning future stressful events may become more sensitive to stressful events (i.e., reflected in an exacerbated HPA axis response to stress), what in a long-term may contribute to the development of stress-related disorders.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These results are in line with our recent study showing in a large sample of healthy individuals that less decrease in HRV during stress anticipation was associated with lower cortisol reactivity (Pulopulos et al., 2018a).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pulopulos et al., 2018a
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Importantly, high HRV has been associated with successful emotion and stress regulation (Park et al., 2014;Thayer et al., 2012;Vanderhasselt et al., 2015), and with high prefrontal cortex activity (for meta-analyses see: Makovac et al., 2017;Thayer et al., 2012).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As proposed by Vrshek-Schallhorn et al. (2018), given that minor stressors are more common in daily life, individuals with less ability to deal with this kind of stressful events (e.g., persons with low expectancy) would experience more frequent HPA reactivity and higher exposure to high cortisol levels, what in long-run will lead to a dysregulation of the HPA-axis (McEwen, 2003) and a reduced”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McEwen, 2003
- Not checked yetcites De Raedt and Koster, 2010 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As a possible explanation, it has been proposed that in comparison to the slow endocrine response, it is more difficult to detect the rapid changes in emotional states (Campbell and Ehlert, 2012;Schlotz et al., 2008).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although this may reduce the generalizability of our results, it is important to note that stressrelated disorders such as depression and anxiety are more common in women than in men (Bandelow and Michaelis, 2015;Kessler et al., 1994).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Together, these results demonstrate that expectancy is a key factor to understanding the interindividual differences in the activation of the HPA-axis under stressful situations and explain to some extent how expectancy might be linked to the development of stress-related disorders.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“No significant differences were observed between the High expectancy and Low expectancy groups in age (p=0.428),body mass index (p=0.743),subjective socioeconomic status (p=0.929),smoking (p=0.143),depression symptoms (p=0.633),brooding (p=0.388),perceived stress in the past month (p=0.498), and general self-efficacy (p=0.440).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Additional information
plainn = 30- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants in the Low expectancy group reported slightly higher levels of reflection (p=0.055) and self-esteem (p=0.077).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Additional information
plainn = 30 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Previous studies have demonstrated that expectancy and anticipation play a central role in the placebo effect (Rief and Glombiewski, 2017), and it has been proposed that expectations about treatment success are the most prominent predictor of outcome in psychopharmacological and psychological interventions (Schedlowski et al., 2015).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rief and Glombiewski, 2017
- Not checked yetcites Schedlowski et al., 2015 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given that one of the functions of the hormone cortisol is to mobilize resources to deal with stressful situations, one could also consider that a lack of cortisol increase, as it is observed in the High Expectancy group, might be a maladaptive response to stress.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: One of the functions of the hormone cortisol is to mobilize resources to deal with stressful situations.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another limitation is that, although we assessed several psychological factors that may affect the stress response (i.e., perceived stress in the past month, self-efficacy, self-esteem, rumination and depression symptoms), we do not know whether the two groups have similar levels of social anxiety.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken all together, these findings support the idea that individuals with high expectancy will successfully initiate mechanisms of anticipatory stress regulation (reflected in less decrease in HRV during stress anticipation), allowing them to prepare for the confrontation with the upcoming situation, and facilitating the confrontation with the stressful event, what in a long-run would be reflected”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 4. Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The scale was translated into Dutch and back translated into English.The final English version was approved by the author of the scale.”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Mediation analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
It is not well understood how psychological and physiological processes that occur during stress anticipation affect the regulation of the cortisol response to stress.
“However, it is still not well understood how psychological and physiological processes that occur during stress anticipation affect the regulation of the cortisol response to stress.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There are large inter-individual differences in the cortisol response to stress.
“There are large inter-individual differences in the cortisol response to stress, and it has been proposed that cortisol and the activity of the HPA axis play a central role in the onset and maintenance of stress-related psychological illnesses such as depression and anxiety disorders (Faravelli et al., 2012;Herbert, 2013;Morris et al., 2012).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The mechanism by which expectancy affects the cortisol response to stress has never been investigated.
“However, this mechanism has never been investigated; and research using an experimental manipulation is needed to establish such a causal pathway.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The expectancy manipulation (positive/negative feedback) was effective in changing expectancy in the analyzed participants.
“Finally, seven participants indicated that they did not believe the feedback used to manipulate expectancy.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The version of the TSST used in this study had moderate-low stress severity.
“Second, the stress severity of the version of the TSST used in this study was moderate-low.”
The paper relies on this without support.
One of the functions of the hormone cortisol is to mobilize resources to deal with stressful situations.
“Given that one of the functions of the hormone cortisol is to mobilize resources to deal with stressful situations”
The paper relies on this without support.
The anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal index validly measures perceived threat, challenge, and coping resources.
“The result of anticipatory cognitive stress appraisal indicates that the Low expectancy group perceived the situation as more threatening and challenging, and that they perceived that they have fewer resources to deal with the stressful situation than the High expectancy group.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“For example, studies have shown that prenatal stress affects the expression of over 700 genes [56,57,58].”
From Comprehensive review of chronic stress pathways and the efficacy of behavioral stress reduction programs (BSRPs) in managing diseases. (2024) · cites this paper as [58]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1,48)=4.03,p=0.470”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
Reported p = .47 · recomputed p = .050
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1,56)=0.32,p=0.858”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Physiological response to stress
Reported p = .858 · recomputed p = .574
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(3.30,135.35)=0.64, p=0.640”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Mediation analyses
Reported p = .64 · recomputed p = .605
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(3.53,137.46)=0.36, p=0.807”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Mediation analyses
Reported p = .807 · recomputed p = .814
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1,56)=2.31,p=0.633”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Physiological response to stress
Reported p = .633 · recomputed p = .134
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(3.73,152.93)=0.96, p=0.418”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Mediation analyses
Reported p = .418 · recomputed p = .427
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1,41)=2.93, p=0.093”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Mediation analyses
Reported p = .093 · recomputed p = .095
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“t(50)=1.48,p=0.141”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
Reported p = .141 · recomputed p = .145
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upt(50) = 1.48reported p = .141 · recomputed p = .145
“t(50)=1.48,p = .141”
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 48) = 4.03reported p = .47 · recomputed p = .050
“F(1,48)=4.03,p = .470”
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 56) = 2.31reported p = .633 · recomputed p = .134
“F(1,56)=2.31,p = .633”
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 56) = 0.32reported p = .858 · recomputed p = .574
“F(1,56)=0.32,p = .858”
- Doesn’t add upF(3.3, 135.35) = 0.64reported p = .64 · recomputed p = .605
“F(3.30,135.35)=0.64, p = .640”
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 41) = 2.93reported p = .093 · recomputed p = .095
“F(1,41)=2.93, p = .093”
- Doesn’t add upF(3.73, 152.93) = 0.96reported p = .418 · recomputed p = .427
“F(3.73,152.93)=0.96, p = .418”
- Doesn’t add upF(3.53, 137.46) = 0.36reported p = .807 · recomputed p = .814
“F(3.53,137.46)=0.36, p = .807”
- Consistentt(50) = 2.25reported p = .029 · recomputed p = .029
“t(50)=2.25,p = .029”
- Consistentt(50) = -2.04reported p = .047 · recomputed p = .047
“t(50)=-2.04,p = .047”
- Consistentt(50) = -2.46reported p = .017 · recomputed p = .017
“t(50)=-2.46,p = .017”
- ConsistentF(2.03, 99.42) = 57.97reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2.03,99.42)=57.97,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 49) = 0.54reported p = .468 · recomputed p = .466
“F(1,49)=0.54,p = .468”
- ConsistentF(2.03, 99.42) = 0.79reported p = .46 · recomputed p = .458
“F(2.03,99.42)=0.79,p = .460”
- Consistentt(44.39) = 1.61reported p = .114 · recomputed p = .115
“t(44.39)=1.61,p = .114”
- ConsistentF(1, 49) = 5.92reported p = .019 · recomputed p = .019
“F(1,49)=5.92,p = .019”
- ConsistentF(1, 49) = 0.66reported p = .419 · recomputed p = .420
“F(1,49)=0.66,p = .419”
- ConsistentF(1, 49) = 6.46reported p = .014 · recomputed p = .014
“F(1,49)=6.46,p = .014”
- ConsistentF(1, 49) = 6.57reported p = .014 · recomputed p = .013
“F(1,49)=6.57,p = .014”
- ConsistentF(1, 49) = 4.87reported p = .032 · recomputed p = .032
“F(1,49)=4.87,p = .032”
- ConsistentF(1, 49) = 4.42reported p = .041 · recomputed p = .041
“F(1,49)=4.42,p = .041”
- ConsistentF(1, 48) = 4.79reported p = .033 · recomputed p = .034
“F(1,48)=4.79,p = .033”
- ConsistentF(1, 48) = 1.78reported p = .188 · recomputed p = .188
“F(1,48)=1.78,p = .188”
- ConsistentF(1, 48) = 4.03reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .050
“F(1,48)=4.03,p = .050”
- ConsistentF(1, 48) = 5.29reported p = .026 · recomputed p = .026
“F(1,48)=5.29,p = .026”
- ConsistentF(1, 48) = 2.23reported p = .142 · recomputed p = .142
“F(1,48)=2.23,p = .142”
- ConsistentF(1, 49) = 5.45reported p = .024 · recomputed p = .024
“F(1,49)=5.45,p = .024”
- ConsistentF(2.08, 116.54) = 69.8reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2.08,116.54)=69.80,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(2.08, 116.54) = 0.42reported p = .665 · recomputed p = .666
“F(2.08,116.54)=0.42,p = .665”
- ConsistentF(1, 56) = 9.73reported p = .003 · recomputed p = .003
“F(1,56)=9.73,p = .003”
- ConsistentF(1, 56) = 4.83reported p = .032 · recomputed p = .032
“F(1,56)=4.83,p = .032”
- ConsistentF(1, 56) = 5.44reported p = .023 · recomputed p = .023
“F(1,56)=5.44,p = .023”
- ConsistentF(1, 56) = 4.81reported p = .032 · recomputed p = .032
“F(1,56)=4.81,p = .032”
- ConsistentF(2.74, 112.4) = 3.78reported p = .015 · recomputed p = .015
“F(2.74,112.40)=3.78, p = .015”
- ConsistentF(1, 41) = 0.23reported p = .634 · recomputed p = .634
“F(1,41)=0.23, p = .634”
- ConsistentF(2.74, 112.4) = 0.81reported p = .483 · recomputed p = .481
“F(2.74,112.40)=0.81, p = .483”
- ConsistentF(2.64, 108.2) = 7.02reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2.64,108.20)=7.02, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 41) = 2.36reported p = .132 · recomputed p = .132
“F(1,41)=2.36, p = .132”
- ConsistentF(2.64, 108.2) = 2.08reported p = .115 · recomputed p = .115
“F(2.64,108.20)=2.08, p = .115”
- ConsistentF(2.53, 103.6) = 4.34reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010
“F(2.53,103.60)=4.34, p = .010”
- ConsistentF(1, 41) = 0.46reported p = .5 · recomputed p = .501
“F(1,41)=0.46, p = .500”
- ConsistentF(2.53, 103.6) = 1.45reported p = .238 · recomputed p = .236
“F(2.53,103.60)=1.45, p = .238”
- ConsistentF(3.85, 157.67) = 22.75reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3.85,157.67)=22.75, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 41) = 0.666reported p = .419 · recomputed p = .419
“F(1,41)=0.666, p = .419”
- ConsistentF(3.85, 157.67) = 0.43reported p = .778 · recomputed p = .780
“F(3.85,157.67)=0.43, p = .778”
- ConsistentF(3.3, 135.35) = 1.34reported p = .262 · recomputed p = .264
“F(3.30,135.35)=1.34, p = .262”
- ConsistentF(1, 41) = 5.39reported p = .025 · recomputed p = .025
“F(1,41)=5.39, p = .025”
- ConsistentF(3.87, 158.63) = 29.74reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3.87,158.63)=29.74, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 41) = 0.23reported p = .635 · recomputed p = .634
“F(1,41)=0.23, p = .635”
- ConsistentF(3.87, 158.63) = 0.92reported p = .451 · recomputed p = .454
“F(3.87,158.63)=0.92, p = .451”
- ConsistentF(3.73, 152.93) = 10.7reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3.73,152.93)=10.70, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(3.53, 137.46) = 10.35reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3.53,137.46)=10.35, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 41) = 0.52reported p = .474 · recomputed p = .475
“F(1,41)=0.52, p = .474”
- ConsistentF(1, 41) = 1.04reported p = .314 · recomputed p = .314
“F(1,41)=1.04, p = .314”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
“cortisol Reactivity: t(50)=1.48,p=0.141, d=0.21”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
“for cortisol Reactivity, Low Expectancy: mean=0.550,SD=0.49,High Expectancy: mean=-0.375,SD=0.29”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.1. Participants.
“25 participants in the High Expectancy group (M age = 20.52,SD = 2.10) and 27 participants in the Low Expectancy group (M age = 21.00,SD = 2.43)”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Mediation analyses
“| Age | L | 20.52 | 0.40 -0.766 0.448 | d=0.10 | | | | | H | 21.00 | 0.49 | | | |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
“Although the Low expectancy group showed a larger decrease in HRV from baseline to anticipation”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.4. Physiological response to stress
“Low Expectancy: mean=-0.104,SEM=0.039,High Expectancy: mean=-0.58,SEM=0.041”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Abstract
“52 women in young adulthood (M=21.06;SD=2.58)”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.1. Participants.
“25 participants in the High Expectancy group (M age = 20.52,SD = 2.10) and 27 participants in the Low Expectancy group (M age = 21.00,SD = 2.43)”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 2.3. Psychological stress response
“Therefore, 42 participants were included in the analyses with VASs data (High Expectancy=23, Low Expectancy=20).”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > Mediation analyses
“Group: F(1,41)=0.23, p=0.634, hp 2 =0.01”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.5. Mediation analyses
“Indirect effect=-0.133,SE=0.071”
§ Cortisol response to stress: The role of expectancy and anticipatory stress regulation > 3.5. Mediation analyses
“95% CI=0.285 to 0.009”
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The concept of general expectancy in various personality dispositions
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Neurobiology and systems biology of stress resilience
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Stress in manual and autonomous modes of collaboration with a cobot
Pollak, A. M., Paliga, M., Pulopulos, M. M., Kożusznik, B., & Kozusznik, M. W. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106469 · Cited by 87
Self-citationLiu, K., Wang, H., Zhu, F., Chang, Z., Du, R., Deng, Y., & Qi, X. (2024) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.3c11729 · Cited by 80
Zapater‐Fajarí, M., Crespo-Sanmiguel, I., Pulopulos, M. M., Hidalgo, V., & Salvador, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.632141 · Cited by 91
Self-citationShchaslyvyi, A. Y., Antonenko, S. V., & Telegeev, G. D. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21081077 · Cited by 73
Metadata
- Authors
- Pulopulos, M. M., Baeken, C., & De Raedt, R.
- Affiliations
- Ghent University (BE)
- Venue
- Hormones and Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-01
- Volume
- 117
- Pages
- 104587
- ISSN
- 0018-506X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2981475429
- Semantic Scholar
- b70afe40549c9c1cc5a5954ecd73edbf9b304e34
- Cited by
- 142
- References
- 93
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 6.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Hormones and Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- VUBIR (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Universiteit Gent
- Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- expectancy, heart rate variability, salivary cortisol, stress-related disorders, depression, anxiety disorders, young women
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Female, Heart Rate, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Male, Motivation, Psychological Tests, Surveys and Questionnaires, Saliva, Stress, Psychological, Young Adult, Anticipation, Psychological
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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