The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
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Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plainstates a causen = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept
STERN, Y. (2002) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617702813248 · Cited by 3,951
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Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
Self-citationRunning enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice
van Praag, H., Christie, B. R., Sejnowski, T. J., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.23.13427 · Cited by 2,904
Neural consequences of enviromental enrichment
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Training and plasticity of working memory
Klingberg, T. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 · Cited by 1,585
Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,901–2,000 of 3,537
Huang, G., Guo, F., & Gong, C. (2019) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/03601277.2019.1678719 · Cited by 7
“First, more educational training at early ages means that the individual is likely to have an increased brain size and a larger cognitive reserve capacity, which can delay the age-related neural degeneration in old age (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundGazes, Y., Lee, S., Sakhardande, J., Mensing, A., Razlighi, Q. R., Ohkawa, A., Pleshkevich, M., Luo, L., & Habeck, C. G. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116809 · Cited by 6
Hammers, D. B., Kucera, A., Spencer, R. J., Abildskov, T. J., Archibald, Z. G., Hoffman, J. M., & Wilde, E. A. (2020) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2020.1762602 · Cited by 7
“…educational attainment (mean of 16.78 years of education) for this select group of participants receiving amyloidPET imaging – and the fact that this subsample was comprised of individuals generally diagnosed with MCI – led to their possessing a high degree of cognitive reserve (Stern, 2002, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialAzzam, E., Elneily, D., Gayar, N. H. E., Elfatatry, A., & Saad, M. (2020) · Endocrine and Metabolic Science · doi:10.1016/j.endmts.2020.100054 · Cited by 8
Laermans, J., Scheers, H., Vandekerckhove, P. G., & Buck, E. D. J. D. (2020) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1117 · Cited by 6
Busatto, G. F., Duran, F., Squarzoni, P., Coutinho, A. M., Rosa, P. G. P., Torralbo, L., Pachi, C. G. D. F., da Costa, N. A., Porto, F. H. D. G., Carvalho, C. L., et al. (2020) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.24739 · Cited by 7
“Finally, partial correlation analyses (controlled for age and sex) investigating HSVs and years of education as a proxy for cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012) showed no significant findings (p < 0.05) either in the A+(N)− subgroup; the A+(N+) subgroup; the joint A+(N)− plus A−(N)− subgroups, or in the…”
MethodInfluentialWebb, S. L., Birney, D. P., Loh, V., Walker, S., Lampit, A., & Bahar‐Fuchs, A. (2021) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2020.1869567 · Cited by 8
“Past experience of depression is theorized to put an individual at greater risk for accelerated and more severe age-related cognitive decline through reduced cognitive reserve and negative plasticity processes due to reduced mental stimulation associated with the behavioural withdrawal characteristic of depression (La…”
BackgroundWittich, W., Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Johnson, A. P., Joubert, S., Kehayia, E., Bachir, V., Aubin, G., Jaiswal, A., & Phillips, N. A. (2021) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/19931 · Cited by 6
“Researchers have also linked reading and engaging in higher-level cognitive activities with increased cognitive reserve, that in turn is associated with more tolerance of AD pathology and stimulation of brain plasticity [62-65].”
Gkotzamanis, V., Koliopanos, G., Niubo, A. S., Olaya, B., Caballero, F. F., Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L., Chatterji, S., Haro, J. M., & Panagiotakos, D. B. (2021) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2021.1913739 · Cited by 7
“In particular, higher level of education, higher socioeconomic status and physical activity have been associated with more favorable cognitive outcomes (Koster et al., 2005; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundChang, Y., Zhuo, Y., & Luo, D.-H. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-210183 · Cited by 7
Repetition priming in mild cognitive impairment and mild dementia: Impact of educational attainment
O’Shea, D. M., Wit, L. D., Yutsis, M. V., Castro, M., & Smith, G. E. (2017) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2017.1347253 · Cited by 6
“While there are many proxies to ascertain one’s level of cognitive reserve (e.g., IQ, reading and literacy level, occupation), one’s education level has been the most often studied proxy factor (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundKokje, E., Çelik, S., Wahl, H., & von Stutterheim, C. (2021) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-021-00619-5 · Cited by 7
“It has, however, been suggested that using more complex and challenging tasks may be better able to detect the presence of pathology in this challenging group (Stern 2012, 2013).”
BackgroundCurrent Psychological Approaches in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Kormas, P., & Moutzouri, A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75922-7_10 · Cited by 7
Pinho, P., Bertola, L., Ramos, A. A., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.6026 · Cited by 6
“Higher education is a proxy of cognitive reserve, and might act by improving the ability to cope with cognitive demands while aging, 21 and consequently reducing the occurrence of memory failures or even the perception of memory decline due to more use of compensatory strategies.”
BackgroundChun, M. Y., Chung, S. J., Kim, S. H., et al. (2023) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.26827 · Cited by 6
“31 Motor reserve refers to the capacity either to tolerate neuro-degenerative changes before parkinsonian motor symptoms manifest (passive reserve) 32 or to adapt to pathological changes using compensatory mechanisms (active reserve), 33 providing resilience against PD-related pathologies.”
BackgroundMaggi, G., Altieri, M., Risi, M., Rippa, V., Borgo, R. M., Lavorgna, L., Bonavita, S., Buonanno, D., d’Ambrosio, A., Bisecco, A., et al. (2024) · Multiple Sclerosis Journal · doi:10.1177/13524585241302167 · Cited by 7
Resilience mechanisms underlying Alzheimer’s disease
Chew, C. S., Jy, L., Ng, K. Y., Koh, R. Y., & Chye, S. M. (2025) · Metabolic Brain Disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-024-01507-4 · Cited by 6
“According to Stern (2012), brain reserve refers to the physical characteristics of the brain that could tolerate the pathological effects of AD, whereas cognitive reserve refers to the brain’s resistance towards neuropathological impairment (Kok et al. 2022; Stern 2012).”
van den Berg, F., Brouwer, J., Loerts, H., Knooihuizen, R., & Keijzer, M. C. J. (2025) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbae200 · Cited by 10
“…proposed to attenuate typical cognitive aging but also to act as a compensatory mechanism for pathological brain atrophy associated with dementia (Stern, 2012): a higher cognitive reserve has been linked to a delayed onset of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or Alzheimer’s disease (AD) symptoms…”
Huang, J., Zhang, L., Bodimeade, C., Nassan, M. M., Gill, D., Cronjé, H. T., Dib, M., & Daghlas, I. (2025) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes16020113 · Cited by 6
The Biological Intersection Between Chemotherapy-Related Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer Disease
Torre, M., Zanella, C. A., & Feany, M. Β. (2025) · American Journal Of Pathology · doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2024.12.013 · Cited by 8
“12 e 16 Because of the clinical signi fi cance of AD and CRCI, the projected increase in affected patients, and the clinical overlap, it is compelling to consider chemotherapy exposure as a potential risk factor for AD.”
Earnings losses in young‐onset dementia: Population‐based study with admin data
Bagnasco, G., Bakx, P., Licher, S., van Exel, J. N. A., & Wouterse, B. (2025) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.14588 · Cited by 7
Popescu, I. R., Lenain, M., Rovini, E., & Ruthsatz, M. (2025) · American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine · doi:10.1177/15598276251330170 · Cited by 7
“57,58 Currently, the question is how this reserve is integrated at the cerebral level.”
Kim, J. P., Jung, S., Jang, B., Cho, M., Song, M., Kim, J., Kim, B., Lee, H., Shin, D., Lee, E. H., et al. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-57751-4 · Cited by 8
“Also, individuals with the same amount of pathology can either be symptomatic or asymptomatic depending on their cognitive reserve 19 .”
Resilience in Alzheimer's disease: Impact of operationalization and methodological choices
Mutel, S., Quattrocchi, L., Altomare, D., Chicherio, C., Scheffler, M., Lövblad, K., Blennow, K., Ashton, N. J., Zetterberg, H., Abramowicz, M. J., et al. (2025) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.70185 · Cited by 6
“2,3 Identifyingfactorsunderlyingresiliencemechanismsmay aid in developing accurate prognostic measures and novel interventions for AD.”
Serum BDNF and progression to MCI in cognitively normal older adults: A prospective cohort study
Kim, K., Byun, M. S., Yi, D., Jung, J. H., Sohn, B. K., Jung, G., Ahn, H., Lee, J., Lee, Y., Kim, Y., et al. (2025) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1016/j.tjpad.2025.100210 · Cited by 10
“Education is a well-known proxy for cognitive reserve (CR), which is defined as the capacity to preserve cognitive function better in the presence of brain pathology [ 63 , 64 ].”
Peng, S., & Perry, B. L. (2025) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465251356611 · Cited by 8
“…bridging may benefit cognitive function by providing access to novel and diverse social stimuli, including a range of ideas, information, activities, verbal and nonverbal social cues, faces, and speech patterns (Coleman 1988; Peng et al. 2022; Perry, McConnell, Coleman, et al. 2022; Stern 2012).”
InfluentialKang, H., Ihara, E. S., Tompkins, C. J., & Lauber, M. (2025) · Sage Open Aging · doi:10.1177/30495334251366575 · Cited by 6
“According to Stern (2012), lifelong participation in cognitively and physically demanding activities might develop a cognitive reserve that serves as a barrier against cognitive deterioration.”
Almomani, M., & Al-Masaeid, M. (2025) · Journal of Economic Studies · doi:10.1108/jes-07-2025-0518 · Cited by 7
Cognitive resilience in ageing: determinants and interventions
Powell, A., Chan, K., Shepherd, C. E., & Brodaty, H. (2026) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(26)00027-x · Cited by 10
Cognitive factors associated with emotional intelligence
Venkatesh, S., & Fischer, C. E. (2019) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610219000917 · Cited by 6
“It is hypothesized that the neural networks engaged in CR are the same networks utilized in the absence of disease-related pathology, which is why individual differences in CF exist (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundPan, K., Xu, W., Mangialasche, F., Grande, G., Fratiglioni, L., & Wang, H. (2020) · Aging · doi:10.18632/aging.102843 · Cited by 7
“com 3734 AGING actively cope with brain changes by using preexisting neuronal processing approaches or by generating compensatory networks to maintain cognitive function [16].”
BackgroundHandicraft art leisure activities and cognitive reserve
Mashinchi, G. M., McFarland, C. P., Hall, S., Strongin, D. L., Williams, G. A., & Cotter, K. A. (2023) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2023.2253993 · Cited by 7
“This ability of CR to ward off or delay clinical manifestations of dementia might speak to the reason why some individuals exhibit symptoms of cognitive decline, while others do not (Ho & Chan, 2005; Pettigrew & Soldan, 2019; Stern, 2012; Stern et al., 2019, 2020).”
BackgroundAndrews, E., Eierud, C., Banks, D., Harshbarger, T., Michael, A., & Rammell., C. (2023) · Journal of Psychiatry and Psychiatric Disorders · doi:10.26502/jppd.2572-519x0187 · Cited by 2
“…(ROI) seed-based analysis approaches. and genetically based, and includes different definitions, including: (1) “The neurological brain reserve hypothesis proposes that individuals generally differ in the numbers of neurons and synapses available to be lost before clinical symptoms emerge” [21].”
BackgroundConcha‐Cisternas, Y., Castro‐Piñero, J., Petermann-Rocha, F. E., Troncoso-Pantoja, C., Díaz, X., Cigarroa, I., Martorell, M., Martínez-Sangüinetti, M. A., Nazar, G., Leiva-Ordóñez, A. M., et al. (2022) · Revista médica de Chile · doi:10.4067/s0034-98872022001201575 · Cited by 9
The Influence of Age and Physical Activity on Locomotor Adaptation
Hiew, S., Eibeck, L., Nguemeni, C., & Zeller, D. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13091266 · Cited by 6
“…several studies have shown reduced aftereffects, such as post-adaptation asymmetry, combined with a decreased rate of deadaptation in the elderly, the older adults in our study showed significantly reduced symmetry at the late post-adaptation phase, where younger adults had returned to…”
Advances in cerebellar disorders: pre-clinical models, therapeutic targets, and challenges
Manto, M. U., Cendelín, J., Strupp, M., & Mitoma, H. (2023) · Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets · doi:10.1080/14728222.2023.2263911 · Cited by 8
“The concept of neural reserve has also been proposed for other structures and in relation to other degenerative diseases, such as cognitive reserve in Alzheimer’s disease [66–68] and motor reserve in Parkinson’s disease [69].”
BackgroundUnderstanding the Link Between Retirement Timing and Cognition: A Scoping Review
Yauk, J., Veal, B. M., & Dobbs, D. (2023) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/07334648231213745 · Cited by 8
“Similarly, cognitive reserve theory proposes that repeated exposure to intellectually stimulating environments activates and stimulates neural connections, thereby increasing cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundValidation of the Cognitive Reserve Index Questionnaire (CRIq) in Arabic
Darwish, H., & Farran, N. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13121006 · Cited by 6
“The disjunction between the degree of brain pathology and its clinical manifestations gave rise to the term “cognitive reserve or brain reserve” [1].”
BackgroundMethodTurner, M., Belli, A., Castellani, R. J., & McCrory, P. (2024) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease Reports · doi:10.3233/adr-240021 · Cited by 7
Fonseca, L. M., Kanapka, L. G., Miller, K. M., Pratley, R. E., Rickels, M. R., Rizvi, S., Kudva, Y. C., Weinstock, R. S., & Chaytor, N. S. (2024) · Journal of Diabetes and its Complications · doi:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2024.108739 · Cited by 7
Glover, S., Cleland, C., Trott, M., & Hunter, R. F. (2024) · Environmental Research Health · doi:10.1088/2752-5309/ad44cc · Cited by 9
The effect of diabetes in the multifaceted relationship between education and cognitive function
Reinke, C. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-20156-x · Cited by 6
“The association between education and cognitive function is well researched [20] and established by the concept of Cognitive Reserve [21].”
BackgroundCaring for Grandchildren and Dementia Among Older Adults in China
Zhou, Z., & Hong, X. (2025) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.19622 · Cited by 7
Finch, C. E., & Martin, G. M. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29716-3_19 · Cited by 7
“Other aspects of brain plasticity are given by Stern’s analysis of cognitive reserve [91, 92].”
Ihle, A., Gouveia, É. R., de Gouveia, B. R. F. O., Zuber, S., & Kliegel, M. (2019) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000505617 · Cited by 6
Integrity of Multiple Memory Systems in Individuals With Untreated Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Jackson, M. L., Rayner, G., Wilson, S. J., Schembri, R., Sommers, L., O’Donoghue, F. J., Jackson, G. D., & Tailby, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00580 · Cited by 6
“Similar processes have been posited to operate in the early stages of degenerative disease, with life experiences, leisure activities, and education and occupational attainment having a protective effect (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundSelf-Determination Theory: Attributes of Healthy Aging
Ng, B., & Abbas, D. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-6968-5_2 · Cited by 8
Liu, L., Huang, X. B., Feng, L., & Wu, Y. (2020) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/1533317520962660 · Cited by 6
“Our findings support the concept of “cognitive reserves” involving the protective effect of education against cognitive decline.(4,39) Consistent with this view, persons who received higher education (elementary school or higher) in our study obtained higher cognitive test scores than those with a few years of educati…”
BackgroundResultJob Strain and Late-Life Cognition: Findings From the Puerto Rican Elderly Health Conditions Study
Vigoureux, T. F. D., Nelson, M. E., Andel, R., Small, B. J., Dávila-Roman, A., & Crowe, M. G. (2020) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264320977329 · Cited by 6
“Higher education is associated with better cognitive functioning, which is thought to be at least partially due to increased cognitive reserve (Stern, 2002, 2012).”
BackgroundDoes a Cancer Diagnosis in Mid-to-Later Life Modify Racial Disparities in Memory Aging?
Eastman, M. R., Ospina-Romero, M., Westrick, A. C., Kler, J. S., Glymour, M. M., Abdiwahab, E., & Kobayashi, L. C. (2022) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0000000000000493 · Cited by 6
Cadar, D. (2018) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.79119 · Cited by 7
Race-Discordant School Attendance and Cognitive Function in Later Life
Carr, D. C., & Reynolds, J. R. (2022) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/01640275221103791 · Cited by 6
“Growing evidence shows that the brain is malleable, and a variety of exposures over the life course play an important role in shaping how well we weather cognitive losses that come with aging (Stern, 2012).”
Cognitive reserve and emotion recognition in the context of normal aging
Guerrini, S., Hunter, E. M., Papagno, C., & MacPherson, S. E. (2022) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2022.2079603 · Cited by 9
“As CR can impart protection for the whole lifespan and its effects can be accumulative (Stern, 2012), future studies involving emotion recognition might conduct longitudinal studies.”
InfluentialSepehry, A. A., Schultz, I. Z., Cohen, D. A., & Greer, S. C. (2022) · Psychological Injury and Law · doi:10.1007/s12207-022-09456-y · Cited by 6
“(b) For the estimation of cognitive reserve capacity, taking into consideration high-achieving status, education, and multi-language skills, within the biopsychosocial (integrative) model, given the confounding effect of the reserve capacity (Stern, 2012, 2013), is recommended.”
BackgroundZhang, Y., Yang, X., Guo, L., Xu, X., Chen, B., Ma, X., & Li, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1080566 · Cited by 7
“Intellectual activity can protect cognitive function in older adults by increasing the effectiveness and plasticity of neural networks (Stern, 2012; Barker et al., 2021), preventing or slowing the deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques (Landau et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMohindru, S., Nigam, R., & Kar, B. R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7443-4_16 · Cited by 7
Does Employment Complexity Promote Healthy Cognitive Aging in Down Syndrome?
Piro‐Gambetti, B., Schworer, E. K., Handen, B. L., Glukhovskaya, M., & Hartley, S. L. (2023) · Journal of Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1177/17446295231169379 · Cited by 8
“Research on the theory of cognitive reserve has most commonly indexed how cognitively stimulating lifestyles are through employment complexity and/or education level (Boots et al., 2015; Schultz et al., 2015; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundUrbanicity and cognitive functioning in later life
Lawrence, E., John, S. E., & Bhatta, T. R. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1002/dad2.12429 · Cited by 6
Hakiki, B., Pancani, S., Romoli, A. M., Draghi, F., Maccanti, D., Mannini, A., & Cecchi, F. (2023) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2023.1106989 · Cited by 6
“It postulates that individual differences in the cognitive processes or neural networks underlying task performance enable some people to cope better with pathological brain damage and with normal aging brain changes (13).”
BackgroundCogstim: A Shared Decision-making Model to Support Older Adults’ Brain Health
Ownby, R. L., & Waldrop‐Valverde, D. (2023) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/1567205020666230525110814 · Cited by 6
Kim, H.-B., Kim, S., Um, Y. H., Wang, S., Kim, R. E. Y., Choe, Y. S., Lee, J., Kim, D., Lim, H. K., Lee, C. U., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2023.1248531 · Cited by 5
“Crucially, cognitive reserve influences when dementia begins, how rapidly cognitive decline progresses, and the extent of the pathology that results in dementia (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundTomás, A. M., Bento-Torres, N. V. O., Jardim, N. Y. V., Moraes, P. M., da Costa, V. O., Modesto, A. A. C., Khayat, A. S., Bento‐Torres, J., & Diniz, C. W. P. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms242417210 · Cited by 6
“However, the educational level is considered the main proxy of the cognitive reserve [53,64] and has been recurrently associated with better cognitive performance and a lower risk for the development of dementia [69].”
BackgroundLifestyle Influence on Mild Cognitive Impairment Progression: A Decision Tree Prediction Model Study
Hou, J., Jiang, H., Yan, H., Huang, R., Gao, X., Feng, W., & Guo, Z. (2024) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s435464 · Cited by 6
“26 This study results are supported by a 4-year cohort study showing that hobbies improved cognitive function in patients with MCI (OR 1.09, 95% CI 1.03–1.16).”
ResultInfluentialGhosh, A., Singh, S., Monisha, S., Jagtap, T., & Issac, T. G. (2024) · Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice · doi:10.25259/jnrp_605_2023 · Cited by 6
“[4] Besides education, engagement in socially and cognitively stimulating activities such as physical exercise, musical, and leisure activities throughout one’s lifetime contribute to cognitive reserve, thereby reducing the risk of dementia.”
Rannikko, I., Jääskeläinen, E., Miettunen, J., Ahmed, A. O., Veijola, J., Remes, A., Murray, G., Husa, A. P., Järvelin, M., Isohanni, M., et al. (2016) · Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2015.1128000 · Cited by 5
Multi-Sensory Integration Impairment in Patients with Minimal Hepatic Encephalopathy
Seo, K., Jun, D. W., Kim, J., et al. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-15113-1 · Cited by 6
Cognitive Remediation Interventions in Schizoaffective Disorder: A Systematic Review
Lopez-Fernandez, E., Solé, B., Jiménez, E., Salagre, E., Gimenez, A., Murru, A., Bonnín, C. D. M., Amann, B. L., Grande, I., Vieta, E., et al. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00470 · Cited by 6
“The concept of cognitive reserve may provide an explanation for the discrepancy in these results since it reflects the capacity of the brain to endure neuropathology and successfully complete cognitive tasks (69).”
ResultMöllers, T., Stocker, H. R., Perna, L., Nabers, A., Rujescu, D., Hartmann, A. M., Holleczek, B., Schöttker, B., Gerwert, K. B., & Brenner, H. (2021) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1002/dad2.12151 · Cited by 5
“In accordance with the cognitive reserve theory, which suggests that a higheducationalleveldoesnotprotectfromADpathologybutitrather delays cognitive decline, 30,31 a higher education was not associated with A β misfolding.”
Decreasing trend in the incidence and prevalence of dementia: a systematic review
Mayer, F., Remoli, G., Bacigalupo, I., Palazzesi, I., Piscopo, P., Bellomo, G., Canevelli, M., Corbo, M., Vanacore, N., & Lacorte, E. (2021) · Minerva Medica · doi:10.23736/s0026-4806.21.07454-1 · Cited by 6
The Janus-like Association between Proton Pump Inhibitors and Dementia
Papazoglou, A., Arshaad, M. I., Henseler, C., Daubner, J., Broich, K., Haenisch, B., & Weiergräber, M. (2021) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/1567205018666210929144740 · Cited by 8
Delgado, E. I., Ríos, R. G., Calvo, M. A., Repiso-Gento, I., Sanz, A. C., Herrero, R. R., Sanz, M. F. R., & Tola-Arribas, M. Á. (2020) · Neurología · doi:10.1016/j.nrl.2019.11.005 · Cited by 6
Hlaing, E. E., Dollinger, S. M. C., & Brown, T. M. (2021) · Sleep Science · doi:10.5935/1984-0063.20200099 · Cited by 6
“Evidence indicates that cognitive reserve may be related to cognitive functioning in clinical populations including patients with multiple sclerosis 12 , breast cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy 13 , and Alzheimer’s patients 14 .”
BackgroundCastro, C. C. M., da Silva, S. P., Rabelo, L. N., Queiroz, J. P. G., Campos, L. D., Silva, L. C., & Fiuza, F. P. (2022) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11244033 · Cited by 7
“Lifelong experiences, such as education, are proxies for cognitive reserve [16,57].”
BackgroundUnraveling the mystery of cognitive reserve
Bhat, A. (2015) · Journal of Biosciences · doi:10.1007/s12038-015-9511-y · Cited by 6
Feldberg, C., Stefani, D., Somale, V., & Allegri, R. (2015) · Neurología Argentina · doi:10.1016/j.neuarg.2015.09.004 · Cited by 6
Elariny, H. A., Abu‐Elfotuh, K., Ali, A. A., & Khalil, M. G. (2017) · Brain Disorders & Therapy · doi:10.4172/2168-975x.1000240 · Cited by 6
“Cognitive reserve hypothesis suggests that physical and social activity may increase the ability to tolerate brain pathology through improved synaptic activity and more efficient brain repair [72,73].”
BackgroundSong, J., Zhang, X., Zhao, Y., Yang, H., Zhang, J., Zhang, X., Dai, J., & Cui, M. (2017) · European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.ejmech.2017.03.073 · Cited by 6
Plasticity in brain activity dynamics after task-shifting training in older adults
Dörrenbächer, S., Wu, C. W. ‐., Zimmer, H. D., & Kray, J. (2019) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107285 · Cited by 6
“…and fronto-parietal networks (Dosenbach, Fair, 61 Cohen, Schlaggar, & Petersen, 2008; Dosenbach et al., 2007; Dosenbach et al., 2006; Gazes, 62 Rakitin, Habeck, Steffener, & Stern, 2012; Gold, Powell, Xuan, Jicha, & Smith, 2010; Kim, 63 Cilles, Johnson, & Gold, 2012; Nee et al., 2013).”
BackgroundAssessment of Lifestyle Experiences across Lifespan and Cognitive Ageing in the Indian Context
Paplikar, A., Ballal, D., Varghese, F. A., Jala, S., Dwivedi, R., Rajan, A., Mekala, S., Arshad, F., Kaul, S., & Alladi, S. (2020) · Psychology and Developing Societies · doi:10.1177/0971333620937512 · Cited by 6
“Although a single indicator (such as education or occupation) is sometimes used in cognition and dementia research, cognitive reserve, a construct used to explain how individuals maintain cognitive ability despite impaired brain health (Stern, 2012), is said to involve several other components.”
BackgroundGenetic and Environmental Influences on Semantic Verbal Fluency Across Midlife and Later Life
Gustavson, D. E., Panizzon, M. S., Kremen, W. S., Reynolds, C. A., Pahlen, S., Nygaard, M., Wod, M., Catts, V. S., Lee, T., Gatz, M., et al. (2021) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-021-10048-w · Cited by 7
“2019) and is considered to be protective against cognitive decline and dementia (Stern, 2012; Boots et al.”
BackgroundNeuroplastizität und Lernen im Alter
Pinter, D., Weiss, E. M., Papousek, I., & Fink, A. (2014) · Lernen und Lernstörungen · doi:10.1024/2235-0977/a000081 · Cited by 6
Education, occupational class and cognitive decline in preclinical dementia
Cadar, D., Piccinin, A., Hofer, S., Johansson, B., & Muniz-Terrera, G. (2016) · GeroPsych · doi:10.1024/1662-9647/a000138 · Cited by 7
“However, after a certain inflection point or accumulation stage, cognitive ability starts to decline and this decline could start later and proceed more quickly for those with high cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialOkonkwo, O. C., & Vemuri, P. (2017) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-017-9677-z · Cited by 6
The Brain and Social Connectedness: GCBH Recommendations on Social Engagement and Brain Health
Carlson, M., Gow, A., Litwin, H., Kim, E., Kondo, K., Qiu, C., & Roos, V. (2017) · doi:10.26419/pia.00015.001 · Cited by 7
Hampel, H. J., & Vergallo, A. (2020) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.14283/jpad.2020.39 · Cited by 6
“On the other hand, large-scale human studies showed that an environment that is deprived of stable cognitive stimulations, such as social interaction, represents a risk factor for cognitive impairment and decline in patients suffering from dementia or individuals with MCI and even cognitively “healthy” people (5, 7, 8…”
BackgroundFittipaldi, S., Legaz, A., Maito, M. A., Hernandez, H., Altschuler, F., Canziani, V., Moguilner, S., Gillan, C. M., Castillo, J., Lillo, P., et al. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3007086/v1 · Cited by 7
Editorial: The cognitive ageing collection
Brown, L. A., Amanzio, M., Güntekin, B., & Keage, H. A. D. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-60763-7 · Cited by 7
Bastelica, T., Lespine, L., Rouch, I., Tadri, M., Dorey, J., Strippoli, M. F., d’Amato, T., von Gunten, A., Preisig, M., & Rey, R. (2023) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2023.1093323 · Cited by 6
“…cognitive reserve hypothesis (Curtis et al., 2015), which states that some favorable environmental factors, such as cognitive engagement (e.g., cognitive activities, social activities) could protect against age-related cognitive decline (Stern, 2003, 2012; Adam et al., 2013; Andel et al., 2015).”
BackgroundLi, Y., Liu, M., Li, X., Jin, Y., Liu, Q., Zhou, W., Yu, J., Huang, T., & Wang, C. (2024) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2024.105651 · Cited by 5
ATN blood biomarkers are related to digital cognitive assessment in type 1 diabetes
Fonseca, L. M., Beeri, M. S., Hawks, Z., Jung, L., Cleveland, M. J., Delgado, N., Bulger, J., Grinspoon, E. A., Janess, K., Sliwinski, M. J., et al. (2024) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1002/dad2.70029 · Cited by 5
“Verbal abilityisknown to resistthe effects of non-pathological aging 34 and is related to the concept of cognitive reserve 35 in which cognitive abilitiesmayserveasadvantageousresourcesthatdelaytheimpactsof neuropathological degeneration.”
Hu, W., Wang, Y., Xie, Z., Liu, M., Han, X., Hu, Y., Wang, X., Dai, Y., Xu, Q. J., & Zhou, Y. F. (2024) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/cns.70162 · Cited by 5
Capogna, E., Sørensen, Ø., Watne, L. O., Roe, J. M., Strømstad, M., Idland, A., Halaas, N. B., Blennow, K., Zetterberg, H., Walhovd, K. B., et al. (2024) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2024.12.009 · Cited by 9
“However, education, one of the most popular proxies of cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012) used to explain individual differences in cognition, which correlates with higher cognition in aging, does not seem to have a meaningful impact on structural brain changes in aging (Nyberg et al., 2021), and does…”
Anita, N. Z., Gonzalez‐Prado, R., Paredes, A. M., Tarraf, W., Kuwayama, S., Stickel, A. M., Sotres‐Alvarez, D., Gallo, L. C., Pendedo, F. J., Daviglus, M. L., et al. (2025) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.inpsyc.2025.100058 · Cited by 5
Childhood maltreatment confers long-term risk for cognitive impairment: A prospective investigation
Assuras, S., Courtney, K., Maxfield, M., Shagalow, S., Sherer, S., Manly, J. J., & Widom, C. S. (2025) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1016/j.tjpad.2025.100303 · Cited by 6
“For example, the cognitive reserve hypothesis[66 – 68] would have predicted that enriched experiences such as getting a high school degree would protect individuals with a history of childhood maltreatment from cognitive decline.”
Lifestyle Composite and Resilience to Alzheimer's Disease Pathology in Down Syndrome
Schworer, E. K., Zammit, M. D., Handen, B. L., Piro‐Gambetti, B., Jenkins, M. R., Brothers, C., Okonkwo, O. C., Hom, C. L., Ances, B. M., Christian, B., et al. (2025) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.70109 · Cited by 4
“…capital prior to AD pathology, helping maintain brain structure and function in the presence of AD pathology, and/or fostering cognitive strategies to compensate for declines in cognitive abilities (cognitive reserve) (Arenaza-Urquijo and Vemuri 2018; Arenaza-Urquijo and Vemuri 2020; Stern 2012).”
Neuroimaging Biomarkers in Alzheimer’s Disease
Tripathi, S. M., Chutia, P., & Murray, A. D. (2025) · Journal of dementia and Alzheimer's disease · doi:10.3390/jdad2040037 · Cited by 7
“However, due to cognitive reserve and ceiling and floor effects of psychometric tests, clinical presentations usually differ between people with AD [89,90].”
Shin, J., Tampi, R. R., Joshi, P., Jester, D. J., & Jeste, D. V. (2025) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.inpsyc.2025.100152 · Cited by 8
Mechanisms and Impact of Cognitive Reserve in Normal Aging and Alzheimer’s Disease
Simfukwe, C., An, S. S. A., & Youn, Y. C. (2025) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics15233068 · Cited by 11
“Although it was simple to measure, years of education were a static indicator that did not account for cognitive engagement throughout one’s life and did not accurately reflect the quality and variety of learning experiences [15].”
InfluentialMerlini, A., Gabbatore, I., Marini, A., & Bosco, F. M. (2025) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2025.2586970 · Cited by 6
“One such factor is Cognitive Reserve (CR), defined as the brain’s capacity to compensate for challenges and maintain cognitive performance through its structural attributes or engagement of broader neural networks (Stern, 2012).”
Clinical–biological Alzheimer's disease stage concordance: insights from cohorts and autopsy data
Trudel, L., Therriault, J., Macedo, A. C., Hosseini, S. A., Arias, J. F., Chan, T., Rahmouni, N., Bezgin, G., Tissot, C., Woo, M. S., et al. (2026) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awag018 · Cited by 8
“…no study has yet investigated the influence of other pathologies associated with dementia, such as frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD)-tau, FTLD-TDP-43 and limbic-predominant age-related TDP43 encephalopathy neuropathological change (LATE-NC), using gold-standard neuro-pathological…”
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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