The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirectn = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
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In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
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In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept
STERN, Y. (2002) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617702813248 · Cited by 3,951
Self-citationRunning increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/6368 · Cited by 3,880
Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
Self-citationRunning enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice
van Praag, H., Christie, B. R., Sejnowski, T. J., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.23.13427 · Cited by 2,904
Neural consequences of enviromental enrichment
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (2000) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35044558 · Cited by 2,468
A Meta-Analysis of Cognitive Remediation for Schizophrenia: Methodology and Effect Sizes
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Training and plasticity of working memory
Klingberg, T. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 · Cited by 1,585
Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
Stern, Y. (1994) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032 · Cited by 1,434
Self-citationAgeing, fitness and neurocognitive function
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., Harrison, C. R., Chason, J., Vakil, E., Bardell, L., Boileau, R. A., et al. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/22682 · Cited by 1,394
Katzman, R., Terry, R., DeTeresa, R., Brown, T., Davies, P., Fuld, P., Renbing, X., & Peck, A. (1988) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410230206 · Cited by 1,225
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,501–1,600 of 3,537
Thwarting Alzheimer’s Disease through Healthy Lifestyle Habits: Hope for the Future
Govindugari, V. L., Golla, S., Reddy, S. D. M., Chunduri, A., Nunna, L. S. V., Jahanavi, M., Shamshabad, V., Bandela, M., & Suryadevara, V. (2023) · Neurology International · doi:10.3390/neurolint15010013 · Cited by 17
“But, once there are clinical signs, the rate of impairment in cognition (more specifically in executive functions) due to AD was found to be more rapid in the cases with higher levels of education [87].”
BackgroundInfluentialAvery, J. S., Thomas, D., & Myshakivska, O. (2023) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-023-03906-1 · Cited by 16
Structural MRI Biomarkers of Mild Cognitive Impairment from Young Elders to Centenarians
Yang, Z., Wen, W. X., Jiang, J., Crawford, J. D., Reppermund, S., Levitan, C., Slavin, M. J., Kochan, N. A., RICHMOND, R. L., Brodaty, H., et al. (2016) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/1567205013666151218150534 · Cited by 14
Slutsky, A. B., & Etnier, J. L. (2016) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2016.1223422 · Cited by 15
“Lastly, hippocampal-based cognition relies on efficient, organised, spatial patterns of neural networks, which then provide hippocampal-specific cognitive reserve (Stern et al., 2008; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundA New Measure for Neural Compensation Is Positively Correlated With Working Memory and Gait Speed
Ji, L., Pearlson, G. D., Hawkins, K. A., Steffens, D. C., Guo, H., & Wang, L. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00071 · Cited by 13
“Typically, CR is measured indirectly by experiences across the lifespan, including educational and occupational attainment, leisure activities and IQ (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundBilingual experience and executive control over the adult lifespan: The role of biological sex
Subramaniapillai, S., Rajah, M. N., Pasvanis, S., & Titone, D. A. (2018) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728918000317 · Cited by 14
“Of relevance here, recent work suggests that certain lifestyle factors (e.g., education level, socioeconomic status) might differentially modulate executive control performance over the adult lifespan (Mungas et al., 2010; Scarmeas & Stern, 2003; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundPark, K.-R., Kim, K.-B., Baek, Y., Sung, H. G., Park, J., Lee, E., & Shin, J.-Y. (2018) · International Journal of Clinical Pharmacy · doi:10.1007/s11096-018-0739-0 · Cited by 13
A Homeostatic Model of Subjective Cognitive Decline
Mizuno, A. N., Ly, M. J., & Aizenstein, H. J. (2018) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci8120228 · Cited by 13
“Since higher level of education is considered to be a marker of cognitive reserve, Stern [43,44] postulated that cognitive reserve provides resilience to neurodegeneration.”
BackgroundDeng, J.-H., Huang, K., Hu, X.-X., Huang, X., Tang, X., Wei, X., Feng, L., & Lu, G. (2019) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-180605 · Cited by 13
“, caused by cerebrovascular diseases) and maintain cognitive and functional activities [34].”
Lindbergh, C. A., Zhao, Y., Lv, J., Mewborn, C. M., Puente, A. N., Terry, D. P., Renzi‐Hammond, L. M., Hammond, B. R., Liu, T., & Miller, L. S. (2019) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.02.014 · Cited by 12
Hamad, R., Nguyen, T. T. X., Glymour, M. M., Vable, A. M., Manly, J. J., & Rehkopf, D. H. (2019) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.06.008 · Cited by 14
“It may be that improved educational quality increases cognitive function and reserve, which reduce the risk of dementia (Stern, 2012), while it plays less of a role on the mechanisms proposed for CVD (Figure 1).”
BackgroundThe importance of cognitive reserve in comprehensive geriatric assessment for dementia
Devita, M., Mondini, S., Bordignon, A., et al. (2019) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-019-01285-5 · Cited by 13
Ribeiro, O. R., do Carmo, I., Paiva, T., & Figueira, M. L. (2020) · Acta Médica Portuguesa · doi:10.20344/amp.12233 · Cited by 13
Interethnic differences in neuroimaging markers and cognition in Asians, a population-based study
Wong, L., Wong, M., Tan, C. S., Vrooman, H., Venketasubramanian, N., Cheng, C.-Y., Chen, C., & Hilal, S. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-59618-8 · Cited by 13
The Association between Neighborhood Amenities and Cognitive Function: Role of Lifestyle Activities
Katayama, O., Lee, S., Makino, K., Chiba, I., Bae, S., Shinkai, Y., Harada, K., & Shimada, H. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm9072109 · Cited by 16
“Furthermore, individuals with exciting jobs, and more favorable socioeconomic backgrounds have been shown to have a lower risk of dementia in old age [18,19].”
BackgroundPoptsi, E., Μoraitou, D., Tsardoulias, E., Symeonidisd, A. L., & Tsolaki, M. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-200562 · Cited by 13
Atherosclerosis, its risk factors, and cognitive impairment in older adults.
Xing, Y., Chen, M. A., Sun, Y., Neradilek, M. B., Wu, X.-T., Zhang, D., Huang, W., Cui, Y., Yang, Q., Li, H., et al. (2020) · PubMed Central · doi:10.11909/j.issn.1671-5411.2020.07.006 · Cited by 13
The modern concept of cognitive reserve
Koberskaya, N. N., & Tabeeva, G. R. (2019) · Neurology neuropsychiatry Psychosomatics · doi:10.14412/2074-2711-2019-1-96-102 · Cited by 17
Ford, K. J., Kobayashi, L. C., & Leist, A. K. (2022) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbac075 · Cited by 13
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that lifetime engagement in cognitively stimulating activities protect against the deleterious effects of aging-related brain pathologies on cognitive function (Stern, 2012).”
The Chinese Translation Study of the Cognitive Reserve Index Questionnaire
Cao, T., Zhang, S., Yu, M., Zhao, X., & Wan, Q. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.948740 · Cited by 13
“In the literature, the concept of cognitive reserve stemmed from observed discrepancies between brain pathology and clinical manifestation and was a relatively novel concept (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundCuestionario de reserva cognitiva: análisis psicométrico desde la teoría de respuesta al ítem
Martino, P., Caycho‐Rodríguez, T., Valencia, P. D., Politis, D. G., Gallegos, M., de Bortoli, M. Á., & Garnero, M. C. (2022) · Revista de Neurología · doi:10.33588/rn.7507.2022113 · Cited by 13
“Stern Y. Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer’s disease.”
BackgroundInfluentialExamining the relation between bilingualism and age of symptom onset in frontotemporal dementia
de Leon, J., Grasso, S. M., Allen, I. E., Escueta, D. P., Vega, Y., Eshghavi, M., Watson, C., Dronkers, N. F., Gorno‐Tempini, M. L., & Henry, M. L. (2023) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728923000226 · Cited by 14
Robertson, M. C., Downer, B. G., Schulz, P. E., Samper‐Ternent, R., Lyons, E., & Milani, S. A. (2023) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbad082 · Cited by 13
Tella, S. D., Isernia, S., Cabinio, M., Rossetto, F., Borgnis, F., Pagliari, C., Cazzoli, M., Navarro, J., Silveri, M. C., & Baglio, F. (2023) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-023-00829-8 · Cited by 12
“…with higher CR may correspond to a better tolerance of age-related damage (Bartrés-Faz & Arenaza-Urquijo, 2011; Mortimer et al., 2003; Stern, 2002, 2012), with GM loss concentrated in the prefrontal cortices (Allen et al., 2005; Driscoll et al., 2009; Raz et al., 2004; Schippling et al., 2017;…”
BackgroundLiu, H., Chopik, W. J., Shrout, M. R., & Wang, J. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116603 · Cited by 13
“Further, our additional years of data (2000 – 2018), in comparison to Xu ’ s study (1996 – 2012), provided a stronger and longer test of the impact of individual and spousal education on cognition.”
Karsazi, H., Rezapour, T., Ghamsari, A. S. M., Kormi‐Nouri, R., & Hatami, J. (2024) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-024-01926-z · Cited by 13
“Due to the modifiable nature of CR (Stern, 2012), many attempts have been made to identify the factors that promote it.”
Yu, X., Kabudula, C. W., Wagner, R. G., Bassil, D. T., Farrell, M. T., Tollman, S. M., Kahn, K., Berkman, L. F., Rosenberg, M. S., & Kobayashi, L. C. (2024) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyae022 · Cited by 12
Dementia in Rare Genetic Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Kwetsie, H., van Schaijk, M., van der Lee, S. J., Festen, D. A. M., ten Hoopen, L. W., van Haelst, M. M., Coesmans, M., van den Berg, E., de Wit, M. Y., Pijnenburg, Y. A. L., et al. (2024) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000209413 · Cited by 13
Cognitive reserve, cortisol, and Alzheimer's disease biomarkers: A memory clinic study
Yerramalla, M. S., Darin‐Mattsson, A., Udeh‐Momoh, C. T., Holleman, J., Kåreholt, I., Aspö, M., Hagman, G., Kivipelto, M., Solomon, A., Marseglia, A., et al. (2024) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13866 · Cited by 12
“The resulting substantive complexity score for our sample population ranged from 1.7 to 10 on a continuous scale, with a mean [SD] of 6.47 [2.10].”
InfluentialOphey, A., Wirtz, K., Wolfsgruber, S., Balzer‐Geldsetzer, M., Berg, D., Hilker-Roggendorf, R., Kassubek, J., Liepelt‐Scarfone, I., Becker, S., Mollenhauer, B., et al. (2024) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-024-12484-0 · Cited by 12
“The concept of CR was initially established in the context auf Alzheimer’s disease [AD; [6, 7]], however, it is increasingly recognized in PD as well.”
Gutierrez, S., Whitmer, R. A., Soh, Y., Peterson, R. L., George, K. M., Lor, Y., Barnes, L. L., Mayeda, E. R., Allen, I. E., Torres, J. M., et al. (2024) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.14112 · Cited by 13
“This is aligned with the vast literature on the importance of early childhood education on cognitive development 28,54–56 and is consistent with our finding that attending a segregated school in early life (1st, 6th grade) but not in later grades.”
Biological mechanisms of resilience to tau pathology in Alzheimer’s disease
Svenningsson, A. L., Bocancea, D. I., Stomrud, E., van Loenhoud, A. C., Barkhof, F., Mattsson, N., Palmqvist, S., Hansson, O., & Ossenkoppele, R. (2024) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-024-01591-9 · Cited by 12
“However, these associations are imperfect and show considerable interindividual differences [4] with comparable burden of Aβ and tau pathology resulting in variable levels of cognitive impairment or neurodegeneration [5, 6].”
Wang, H., Wang, J., Zeng, Y., Yang, H., Chen, W., Shen, Q., & Song, H. (2024) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-024-01592-8 · Cited by 13
“Finally, our findings reinforce the importance of being involved in social contact and obtaining high cognitive reserve, since living alone and having few years of education may directly influence the incidence of dementia [34, 54, 55].”
BackgroundMasticatory function and cognition in older adults: A population-based study.
Zheng, Z.-Y., Xu, M., Wang, L., Deng, Y., Liu, Q.-Q., & Yu, K. (2025) · The Journal of prosthetic dentistry (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.prosdent.2025.01.009 · Cited by 10
The protective role of education in white matter lesions and cognitive decline
Elkana, O., & Beheshti, I. (2025) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2025.106304 · Cited by 12
“…reserve (CR) refers to the brain ’ s ability to optimize or maximize performance through differential recruitment of brain networks or alternative cognitive strategies, thus allowing individuals to cope better with brain pathology (Stern et al., 2020; Steffener and Stern, 2012; Stern, 2002).”
Vignoli, D., Albertini, M., Chiatti, C., Aimaretti, G., Boccuzzo, G., Boffo, V., Brugiavini, A., Cavallo, F., Cenci, S., Cherubini, A., et al. (2025) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbaf219 · Cited by 12
“Emerging research highlights the importance of cognitive health and social engagement in preserving autonomy and delaying cognitive decline (Hertzog et al., 2008; Stern, 2012).”
Hannigan, C., Coen, R. F., LAWLOR, B. A., Robertson, I. H., & Brennan, S. (2015) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-015-0079-y · Cited by 12
“Evidence from the cognitive reserve literature suggests that education may act as a ‘buffer’ against cognitive impairment, allowing highly educated individuals to tolerate a greater level of neuropathology before experiencing clinical symptoms of dementia (Stern 2012).”
BackgroundPiccardi, L., Matano, A., D’Antuono, G., Marin, D., Ciurli, P., Incoccia, C., Verde, P., & Guariglia, P. (2016) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00139 · Cited by 12
“Stern (2012) expands the initial definition of cognitive reserve, considering a further distinction between two types of “reserve”: the brain reserve and the cognitive reserve.”
BackgroundKorištenje interneta u starijoj dobi: je li važno za uspješno starenje?
Odjel za psihologiju, S. U. Z., Nekić, M., Junaković, I. T., et al. (2016) · Suvremena psihologija · doi:10.21465/2016-sp-192-04 · Cited by 12
Bertola, L., de Ávila, R. T., Bicalho, M. A. C., & Malloy‐Diniz, L. F. (2019) · Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2018-0290 · Cited by 12
Impact of Retirement on Cognitive Function
Zulka, L. E., Hansson, I., & Hassing, L. B. (2019) · GeroPsych · doi:10.1024/1662-9647/a000215 · Cited by 13
Ihle, A., Ghisletta, P., Gouveia, É. R., de Gouveia, B. R. F. O., Oris, M., Maurer, J., & Kliegel, M. (2020) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025420937076 · Cited by 12
“We took into account chronological age and sex as well as education, leisure activities, and chronic diseases as key predictors of aging trajectories in cognitive functioning and well-being (Charles & Hong, 2016; Rowe & Cosco, 2016; Stern, 2012).”
MethodRodriguez, F. S., Röhr, S., Pabst, A., Kleineidam, L., Fuchs, Â., Wiese, B., Lühmann, D., Brettschneider, C., Wolfsgruber, S., Pentzek, M., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5409 · Cited by 12
“This protective effect is equally explained by the use-it-or-lose-it theory, which postulates that using cognitive abilities at a higher level for a longer lifetime period helps to maintain them,(4) as well as the theory of cognitive reserve, which assumes that exposure to high mental demands provides the capacity to…”
BackgroundLifshitz, H., Bustan, N., & Shnitzer‐Meirovich, S. (2020) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.12813 · Cited by 13
Martorana, A., Assogna, M., Lucia, V. D., Motta, C., Bonomi, C. G., Bernocchi, F., Donna, M. G. D., & Koch, G. (2021) · Minerva Medica · doi:10.23736/s0026-4806.21.07448-6 · Cited by 12
The Turkish translation study of the Cognitive Reserve Index Questionnaire (CRIq)
Çebi, M., & Kulce, S. N. (2021) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2021.1896519 · Cited by 13
“High education, intellectual capacity, dietary preferences, complex occupational attainment, active social life with participation in leisure activities are considered to be the major contributors to CR (Scarmeas & Stern, 2003; Stern, 2003, 2009, 2012; Whalley et al., 2004).”
BackgroundWorking life job strain status and cognitive aging in Europe: A 12-year follow-up study
Zhuo, L.-B., Pei, J.-J., Yan, Z., Yao, W., Hao, C., & Wang, H. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.08.114 · Cited by 13
Nanomaterials for neurodegenerative diseases: Molecular mechanisms guided design and applications
Li, T., Hou, X., Yu, Q., Duan, X., Yan, P., Zhu, H., Xie, Z., & Zhang, H. (2021) · Nano Research · doi:10.1007/s12274-021-3865-2 · Cited by 12
Birth Cohorts and Cognitive Reserve Influence Cognitive Performances in Older Adults
Turcotte, V., Initiative, A. D. N., Potvin, O., Dadar, M., Hudon, C., & Duchesne, S. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-215044 · Cited by 15
Booth, M. J., Kobayashi, L. C., Janevic, M. R., Clauw, D. J., & Piette, J. D. (2021) · BMC Rheumatology · doi:10.1186/s41927-021-00219-x · Cited by 13
“The limitations of most population-based studies are the use of administrative-based algorithms to detect IMIDs and dementia and lack of controls or matching on important sociodemographic risk factors of dementia, including education [27], gender [28], or race/ethnicity [29].”
BackgroundAging Brain and Hearing: A Mini-Review
Uchida, Y., Nishita, Y., Otsuka, R., Sugiura, S., Sone, M., Yamasoba, T., Kato, T., Iwata, K., & Nakamura, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.791604 · Cited by 12
“Stern discerned brain reserve from cognitive reserve and refined the definition of brain reserve (Stern, 2012; Stern et al., 2019).”
BackgroundAschwanden, D., Sutin, A. R., Ledermann, T., Luchetti, M., Stéphan, Y., Sesker, A. A., Zhu, X., & Terracciano, A. (2022) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-220319 · Cited by 14
“For example, lower neuroticism and higher conscientiousness have been associated with engagement in cognitive activities [85], which help to build up cognitive reserve [86].”
Joo, Y. Y., Cha, J., Jeremy Freese, A., & Hayes, M. G. (2022) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes13081320 · Cited by 13
“Secondly, given the role of hippocampal memory impairment in the pathophysiology of AD, our finding may lead to a potential link of the inherited genetic factor of cognitive resilience to the individual differences in hippocampal degeneration, as well as memory decline in AD [4,62].”
BackgroundQuantitative MRI Evidence for Cognitive Reserve in Healthy Elders and Prodromal Alzheimer’s Disease
Fingerhut, H., Gozdas, E., & Hosseini, S. M. H. (2022) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-220197 · Cited by 14
Kallianpur, K. J., Masaki, K., Chen, R., Willcox, B. J., Allsopp, R., Davy, P. M. C., & Dodge, H. H. (2022) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glac215 · Cited by 14
Yu, W., Esposito, M. H., Li, M., Clarke, P. J., Judd, S. E., & Finlay, J. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-15026-x · Cited by 15
“Identifying upstream neighborhood resources that are potential sources of cognitive reserve [10, 11] has important policy applications to help delay or prevent cognitive decline.”
BackgroundTANTI, A. D., Conforti, J. M., Bruni, S., Gaetano, K. D., Cappalli, A., Basagni, B., Bertoni, D., & Saviola, D. (2023) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10072-023-06665-4 · Cited by 14
“It has been well-established that CR is involved in moderating clinical outcomes regardless of pathology [15], demonstrating that individuals with high CR cope with brain damage better than individuals with low CR [14].”
BackgroundEffects of education mediated by brain size on regional brain volume in adults
Kim, R. E. Y., Lee, M., Kang, D. W., Wang, S., Kim, D., & Lim, H. K. (2023) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2023.111600 · Cited by 15
Gao, J., Zhao, L., Zhong, T., Li, C., He, Z., Wei, Y., Zhang, S., Guo, L., Liu, T., Han, J., et al. (2023) · Psychoradiology · doi:10.1093/psyrad/kkad011 · Cited by 12
“…of the pr ogr ession of man y psyc hiatric diseases, suc h as Alzheimer’s disease , Parkinson’s , and depression (LeMoult & Gotlib, 2019 ; Pick et al. , 2019 ; Stern, 2012 ; Sun et al. , 2020 ; Wolters et al. , 2019 ), and is a k e y determinant of a patient’s quality of life and inde pendence.”
BackgroundMethodKociolek, A. J., Fernández, K. K., Hernandez, M., Jin, Z., Cosentino, S., Zhu, C. W., Gu, Y., Devanand, D. P., & Stern, Y. (2023) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/1567205020666230908163414 · Cited by 13
Self-citationAlzheimer's disease, a metabolic disorder: Clinical advances and basic model studies (Review)
Zhou, S., Tu, L., Chen, W., Yan, G., Guo, H., Wang, X., Hu, Q., Liu, H., & Li, F. (2023) · Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine · doi:10.3892/etm.2023.12351 · Cited by 12
“The WHO estimates that the proportion of the population of the world aged >60 years old will rise to 22% by 2050 (97,98).”
BackgroundInfluentialMatías-Guíu, J., Pérez-Martínez, D., & Matias-Guiu, J. (2016) · Neurología · doi:10.1016/j.nrl.2015.02.002 · Cited by 17
“…indica que una mayor actividad cognitiva podría retrasar el inicio de los sínto-mas en las enfermedades cognitivas, también en la edad anciana 4, Las terapias de estimulación cognitiva han mostrado generalmente resultados positivos en los estudios y metaa-nálisis realizados, con una mejoría…”
Wallace, M., Downing, N. R., Lourens, S. G., Mills, J. A., Kim, J., Long, J. D., Paulsen, J. S., & PREDICT-HD Investigators and Coordinators of the Huntington Study Group (2016) · PLoS Currents · doi:10.1371/currents.hd.cba6ea74972cf8412a73ce52eb018c1e · Cited by 12
Ihle, A., Gouveia, É. R., de Gouveia, B. R. F. O., Freitas, D. L., Jurema, J., Ornelas, R., Antunes, A. M., Muniz, B. R., & Kliegel, M. (2017) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-017-0441-4 · Cited by 14
“In line with the SOC model (Baltes and Baltes 1989) and the cognitive reserve concept (Stern 2009, 2012), such cross-domain compensation mechanisms allow the compensation of a lack of health resources by buffering resources in terms of cognitive reserve to maintain cognitive functioning in old age.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRiedel, N., Siegrist, J., Wege, N., Loerbroks, A., Angerer, P., & Li, J. (2017) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph14111390 · Cited by 13
“Biologically, it is plausible to assume that stimulating cognitive activities enhance the plasticity of neuronal circuits enabling the brain to delay age-related cognitive decline and pathological changes [13,14].”
BackgroundSapkota, S., Ramirez, J., Stuss, D. T., Masellis, M., & Black, S. E. (2018) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-018-0419-2 · Cited by 12
Kowalski, K. A., MacDonald, S. W. S., Yeates, K. O., Tuokko, H. A., & Rhodes, R. E. (2018) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2018.1508682 · Cited by 11
“Age and education were included in the models because they have been consistently associated with differences in cognitive ability in previous literature (e.g. Deary et al., 2009; Ganguli et al., 2010; Perry et al., 2017; Richards & Sacker, 2003; Stern, 2012; van Hooren et al., 2007).”
MethodNikolaev, A., Ashaie, S. A., Hallikainen, M., Hänninen, T., Higby, E., Hyun, J., Lehtonen, M., & Soininen, H. S. (2018) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.10.028 · Cited by 13
“The concept of cognitive reserve has been proposed to explain the apparent behavioral compensation mechanism that has been linked to education (Scarmeas et al., 2003; Stern, 2012; Stern, Alexander, Prohovnik, & Mayeux, 1992).”
BackgroundSexual Expression and Cognitive Function: Gender-Divergent Associations in Older Adults
Wright, H., Jenks, R. A., & Lee, D. M. (2019) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-019-1448-z · Cited by 12
The turn towards prevention – moral narratives and the vascularization of Alzheimer’s disease
Leibing, A. (2019) · New Genetics and Society · doi:10.1080/14636778.2019.1637722 · Cited by 12
“Epidemiologic studies suggest that lifetime exposures including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in late life, can increase this reserve” (Stern 2012, 1006).”
BackgroundPredictors of Episodic Memory Performance Across Educational Strata: Multiple-Group Comparisons
Bertola, L., Watson, C. W., Avila, J. F., Zahodne, L. B., Angevaare, M. J., Schupf, N., & Manly, J. J. (2019) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617719000717 · Cited by 11
“Having a cognitively demanding occupation is related to better cognitive performance in highly educated subjects (Foubert-Samier et al., 2012) even in the face of neurodegeneration (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundSánchez, S. S., Abanto, J. T., Sánchez-Boluarte, A., Carbajal, A. B., Coronel, D. S., Custodio, N., & Cuba, F. S. (2019) · Dementia & Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1590/1980-57642018dn13-030009 · Cited by 12
Halloway, S., Schoeny, M. E., Wilbur, J., & Barnes, L. L. (2019) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264319875570 · Cited by 13
“…cognition, health behavior, accelerometer A growing body of research suggests that certain health behaviors can alter the trajectory of cognitive decline, perhaps by increasing cognitive reserve or compensatory resources that improve the brain’s resilience to damage or disease (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundNutritional status assessment in Alzheimer disease and its influence on disease progression
Delgado, E. I., Ríos, R. G., Calvo, M. A., Repiso-Gento, I., Sanz, A. C., Herrero, R. R., Sanz, M. F. R., & Tola-Arribas, M. Á. (2021) · Neurología (English Edition) · doi:10.1016/j.nrleng.2019.11.006 · Cited by 12
Zeghari, R., Manera, V., Fabre, R., Guerchouche, R., König, A., Tran, M. K. P., & Robert, P. H. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-191282 · Cited by 12
Compensatory Brain Connection Discovery in Alzheimer's Disease
Aganj, I., Frau‐Pascual, A., Iglesias, J. E., Yendiki, A., Augustinack, J. C., Salat, D. H., & Fischl, B. R. (2020) · IEEE International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging (ISBI) · doi:10.1109/isbi45749.2020.9098440 · Cited by 12
“This transient resiliency of the brain networks has been argued to help preserve some memory and attention ability in early AD [7].”
BackgroundAsiedu, N., Kretchy, I. A., & Asampong, E. (2020) · African Health Sciences · doi:10.4314/ahs.v20i2.6 · Cited by 12
Bendayan, R., Mascio, A., Stewart, R. J., Roberts, A., & Dobson, R. (2020) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2020.10.018 · Cited by 12
Effects of Cognitive Reserve on Cognition in Individuals With Central Nervous System Disease
Jammula, V., Leeper, H., Gilbert, M. R., Cooper, D., & Armstrong, T. S. (2021) · Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology · doi:10.1097/wnn.0000000000000282 · Cited by 12
“Individuals with a higher CR and/or BR are believed to have a brain that can sustain more injury compared with individuals with a lower CR and/or BR (Satz, 1993; Stern, 2002, 2012; Tucker and Stern, 2011).”
BackgroundRisk factors for postoperative delirium
Sanders, R. D., Coburn, M., Cunningham, C. M., & Pandharipande, P. P. (2014) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(14)00012-1 · Cited by 13
Bialystok, E. (2016) · Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism · doi:10.1075/lab.16004.bia · Cited by 12
Huang, X., Han, X., Chang, H., Yu, T., Dong, Y., Mao, M., Ding, J., Li, X., Liu, H., Tian, M., et al. (2025) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-025-03166-y · Cited by 11
“Cognitive reserve, which accumulates through lifelong intellectual activities and enriched experiences, has been proposed to explain such disparities [16].”
Current aspects of targeting cellular senescence for the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases
Jaganathan, R., Iyaswamy, A., Krishnamoorthi, S., Thakur, A., Durairajan, S. S. K., Yang, C., & Wankhar, D. (2025) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2025.1627921 · Cited by 12
“The progression of the condition is predominantly influenced by the buildup of these β -amyloid and tau proteins (Stern, 2012; Liu, 2022).”
Fazio, C. D., Scaliti, E., Stanziano, M., Nigri, A., Demichelis, G., Tamietto, M., & Palermo, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2026.1743236 · Cited by 11
“As the global population ages, understanding and addressing age-related changes in the brain, particularly cognitive decline and mood disorders, has become increasingly crucial (Amanzio and Palermo, 2021; Di Fazio et al., 2024; Ferreira et al., 2016; Amanzio et al., 2021; Stern, 2012).”
Haider, S., & Tabassum, S. (2018) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2018.09.003 · Cited by 11
“It is evident that brain structure and function is modulated by experience that produces a neuroprotective brain reserve (Stern, 2012) protecting cognitive function during injury and decline (Tucker and Stern, 2011; Gelfo, Mandolesi, Serra, Sorrentino, & Caltagirone, 2017).”
Briggs, R., Kennelly, S., & O’Neill, D. J. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-06200-2_15 · Cited by 12
Inamura, K., Shinagawa, S., Nagata, T., Tagai, K., Nukariya, K., & Shigeta, M. (2022) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.12818 · Cited by 10
Oosterhuis, E. J., Slade, K., Smith, E., May, P., & Nuttall, H. E. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0280566 · Cited by 11
“However, several studies demonstrate that increasing CR levels at older age, for example through late-life education, increases cognitive performance [4, 79].”
BackgroundHerrera‐Pérez, E., Custodio, N., Diaz, M. M., Montesinos, R., Chang, A., Villafuerte-Espinoza, M., & Lanata, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1228008 · Cited by 15
“Consistent with this, participation in social activities (55) and higher educational levels could be a protective factor against dementia (56, 57), although the high variability of educational quality in LA may lower the protective effects of number of years of education compared with high-income…”
BackgroundKatayama, O., Stern, Y., Habeck, C. G., Lee, S., Harada, K., Makino, K., Tomida, K., Morikawa, M., Yamaguchi, R., Nishijima, C., et al. (2023) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-023-01368-6 · Cited by 13
“This concept of individual brain characteristics is referred to as the cognitive reserve (CR) [35].”
BackgroundSelf-citationUnderstanding the molecular basis of resilience to Alzheimer’s disease
Montine, K. S., Berson, E., Phongpreecha, T., Huang, Z., Aghaeepour, N., Zou, J., MacCoss, M. J., & Montine, T. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1311157 · Cited by 14
“In Figure 2A, reserve is largely unused up to middle age (Stern, 2002; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundChildhood Maltreatment and Dementia Risk Factors in Midlife: A Prospective Investigation
Widom, C. S., Hang, H., Lynch, K. S., & Manly, J. J. (2023) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/0115672050281539231222071355 · Cited by 11
Khalaila, R., Cohn‐Schwartz, E., Shiovitz‐Ezra, S., & LAWLOR, B. A. (2024) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2023.2299968 · Cited by 11
“…brain plasticity and cognitive reserve, which is hypothesized to increase the brain’s capability for tolerating and compensating for brain atrophy or functional neuronal loss, and consequently, slow down the rate of cognitive decline (Stern, 2012; Weaver & Jaeggi, 2021; Wilson et al. 2002).”
Cognitive resilience in Alzheimer’s disease: from large-scale brain networks to synapses
Negro, D., & Opazo, P. O. (2023) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcae050 · Cited by 11
Dissecting unique and common variance across body and brain health indicators using age prediction
Beck, D., de Lange, A. G., Gurholt, T. P., Voldsbekk, I., Maximov, I. I., Subramaniapillai, S., Schindler, L. S., Hindley, G., Leonardsen, E. H., Rahman, Z., et al. (2024) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26685 · Cited by 10
“Furthermore, individual differences in cognitive reserve (Stern, 2009, 2012), or resilience to neuropathological changes typically associated with ageing, could influence differences in age-prediction scores.”
BackgroundAssessment of cognitive games to improve the quality of life of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s patients
Llorente, Á., del Río, A., Semerci, Y. C., Kurano, J. A., Jiménez, D., & Menéndez, J. M. (2024) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076241254733 · Cited by 11
“Dementia is preceded by cognitive decline 24 and some studies have shown that increasing cognitive activity can stimulate (or increase) the cognitive reserve and have a damping effect against a cognitive decline.”
BackgroundMyrskylä, M., Hale, J. M., Schneider, D. C., & Mehta, N. K. (2024) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glae154 · Cited by 11
“This is expected, as a substantial body of research documents the positive association between education and cognitive reserve (38).”
BackgroundWang, W., Asken, B. M., DeSimone, J. C., Levy, S.-A. T., Barker, W., Fiala, J. A., Vélez-Uribe, I., Curiel, R. E., Rósselli, R., Marsiske, M., et al. (2024) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2024.102507 · Cited by 11
Physical and mental demands of work associated with dementia risk in later life
Yang, H.-J., Yang, Y.-C., Hsu, C., & Cheng, W. (2025) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1016/j.tjpad.2025.100084 · Cited by 13
“While work takes up a majority of waking hours in adult lives for decades, it acts as an important setting for enhancing cognitive reserve and dementia prevention [ 2 ].”
Initiative, A. D. N., Fischer, F. U., Wolf, D. G. F., & Fellgiebel, A. (2019) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-019-00090-y · Cited by 12
“Any analysis of resilience requires at least three types of measures: a possible resilience factor, a measure of pathology and a measure of cognitive outcome (Stern 2012).”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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