The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 29 of the 54 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
Open accessAbstract
The concept of cognitive reserve provides an explanation for differences between individuals in susceptibility to age-related brain changes or pathology related to Alzheimer's disease, whereby some people can tolerate more of these changes than others and maintain function. Epidemiological studies suggest that lifelong experiences, including educational and occupational attainment, and leisure activities in later life, can increase this reserve. For example, the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease is reduced in individuals with higher educational or occupational attainment. Reserve can conveniently be divided into two types: brain reserve, which refers to differences in the brain structure that may increase tolerance to pathology, and cognitive reserve, which refers to differences between individuals in how tasks are performed that might enable some people to be more resilient to brain changes than others. Greater understanding of the concept of cognitive reserve could lead to interventions to slow cognitive ageing or reduce the risk of dementia.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that cognitive reserve explains why people differ in how much Alzheimer’s disease pathology or age-related brain change they can tolerate while still functioning. It synthesizes epidemiologic, neuroimaging, postmortem, and intervention evidence, and concludes that reserve is modifiable but that causal interventions remain unproven.
Key findings
- Reserve is split into brain reserve, a more passive quantitative tolerance tied to brain size or neurons/synapses, and cognitive reserve, an active functional process in which pre-existing or compensatory networks help cope with damage.
- Epidemiologic studies cited found that fewer than 8 years of education carried 2.2 times higher dementia risk, low occupational attainment carried 2.25 times higher risk, and greater leisure activity was linked to 38% lower risk; a review of 22 cohort studies estimated higher reserve reduced dementia risk by 46%.
- After Alzheimer’s disease becomes clinically apparent, higher reserve is associated with faster decline: memory scores fell about one point yearly on average, with an additional point yearly in those with higher education or occupation.
- Imaging and autopsy evidence indicated that at matched clinical severity, higher education was linked to greater parietotemporal blood-flow deficit and, in 130 elders, each additional year of education reduced the pathology–cognition association by 0.088 standard units; fMRI work distinguished neural reserve from neural compensation.
Methods
- Narrative review by the author, integrating his group’s and others’ epidemiologic cohort studies, functional and resting neuroimaging studies, postmortem analyses, and cognitive or exercise intervention trials.
- Cited samples include 593 non-demented adults aged 60 or older followed for 4 years, 130 elders who had cognitive evaluation before autopsy, and a preliminary 90-person older-adult Space Fortress training study.
- Main analysis is conceptual synthesis rather than a new primary study or formal meta-analysis; it draws on a cited systematic review of 22 cohort studies for one pooled estimate.
Limitations
- Stated: epidemiologic evidence is correlational and cannot establish causation; controlled intervention studies are needed, and no study to date has shown changes in the key endpoints of slowed cognitive decline or reduced Alzheimer’s disease risk.
- Stated: clinical use of biomarkers and imaging for reserve is premature because prognostic implications are not fully established, and cognitive training evidence is mixed.
- Evident from the text: this is a narrative review without formal risk-of-bias assessment, many findings come from the author’s own research program, and the interaction between brain reserve and cognitive reserve remains unresolved.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
39 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 No basis given · 10 Supported · 10 Own result · 8 Partly supported · 5 Supported so far · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Couldn’t confirm · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“This idea is supported by a set of studies that suggest that prevalence or incidence of dementia is lower in individuals with larger brains13, 14.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Katzman, 1988, Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: a subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques, Ann Neurol source
- Supportedcites [14] Schofield, 1997, An association between head circumference and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based study of aging, Neurology source
The Discussion (p. 5) reports that smaller head circumference was associated with higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease. The paper uses head circumference as an index of premorbid brain size (p. 1), so its finding supports the citing sentence’s hedged association. This study measured prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, not incidence of dementia generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, compared to individuals with lower CR, those with higher CR performed better even when they use the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [42] Steffener, 2011, Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve, Brain Imaging Behav source
The Results (Model C) report that, in older adults, higher cognitive reserve reduced the negative effect of network 2 expression on task performance. The Discussion likewise says older adults with greater reserve maintained performance better as network 2 expression increased. (LLM, conf=0.88)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those who engaged in more leisure activities had 38% less risk of developing dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [24] Scarmeas, 2001, Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease, Neurology source
The Discussion explicitly states that subjects with high leisure activity had 38% less risk of developing dementia. The Results report a relative risk of 0.62 (95% CI 0.46–0.83), consistent with that figure. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The rate of decline is more rapid in individuals with high reserve than those with low reserve, even when accounting for a multitude of other factors that may contribute to disease course27, 28, 46.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [27] Stern, 1999, Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: cognitive reserve?, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The DOI was not indexed for paper-scoped Semantic Scholar search, so the cited paper’s full text could not be checked directly. A systematic review, “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis” (search score 0.789), explicitly attributes more rapid memory decline in Alzheimer’s patients with higher education and occupational attainment to Stern et al. (1999). This supports the central claim, though the retrieved passage does not verify which other factors the original analysis accounted for. (LLM, conf=0.81)
- Supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
No paper-scoped Semantic Scholar snippets were available for Scarmeas et al. (2006). However, “Higher education affects accelerated cortical thinning in Alzheimer's disease” explicitly cites Scarmeas et al. (2006) among studies finding more rapid cognitive decline after Alzheimer’s onset in patients with higher education (snippet score 0.534). This supports the claim through a secondary citation, although the available evidence does not independently verify which other factors Scarmeas et al. adjusted for. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Supportedcites [46] Hall, 2007, Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia, Neurology sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Hall’s (2007) title establishes the finding of delayed accelerated memory decline in people who develop dementia. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Episodic memory performance in a multi-ethnic longitudinal study of 13,037 elderly” describes the same pattern: education is associated with a delayed change point followed by faster decline (score 0.52). Hall’s full text was unavailable in the paper-scoped search, so the specific assertion about accounting for other factors could not be checked directly; the available evidence supports the core paraphrase, not every qualification. (LLM, conf=0.72)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In a young group of subjects we identified an activation network that was expressed during the stimulus presentation phase of both tasks and whose increase in expression with increasing load correlated with CR.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [43] Stern, 2008, A common neural network for cognitive reserve in verbal and object working memory in young but not old, Cereb Cortex source
The Discussion identifies a pattern in young subjects during stimulus presentation whose load-related activation had a similar relationship with cognitive reserve in both the letter and shape tasks. The Canonical Variates Analysis reports significant expression of that pattern in both tasks and relates its load-related expression to cognitive-reserve scores. (LLM, conf=0.91)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Similar analysis demonstrated a comparable protective effect of occupational attainment33 and leisure activities34.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Stern, 1995, Relationship between lifetime occupation and parietal flow: implications for a reserve against Alzheimer's disease pathology, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [34] Scarmeas, 2003, Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Arch Neurol source
The cited paper’s Results report an inverse association between activity scores and cerebral blood flow after controlling for clinical severity, which the authors interpret as consistent with cognitive reserve. The Conclusions describe analogous findings for occupational attainment and note evidence linking leisure activities to reduced dementia risk. The citation supports the leisure-activities part of the sentence; occupational attainment has a separate citation. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, at a given level of clinical severity, AD patients with higher education have a more severe pattern of AD-related changes on PET scan than those with lower education44, 45.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [44] Garibotto, 2008, Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence, Neurology source
- Supportedcites [45] Kemppainen, 2008, Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Abstract reports that high- and low-educated patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease had the same degree of cognitive deterioration, while the high-educated group showed greater amyloid-tracer uptake and lower glucose metabolism on PET. The Discussion likewise describes more pronounced amyloid accumulation and neuronal dysfunction in the high-educated group. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In AD patients matched for clinical severity, we found an inverse relationship between resting rCBF and years of education32.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Stern, 1992, Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer's disease, Ann Neurol source
The Procedures (p. 2) state that rCBF was measured under resting conditions. The Results (pp. 2–3) report greater parietotemporal flow reductions with more education in AD groups that did not differ on clinical measures; the relationship at the P3 detector remained significant after controlling for dementia severity. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The neural implementation of CR might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation16, 38.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
In “Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR,” Stern explicitly says that the neural implementation of cognitive reserve might take two forms: neural reserve and neural compensation. The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section also describes them as two proposed components. (LLM, conf=0.95)
- Supportedcites [38] Stern, 2005, Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults, Cereb Cortex source
The Introduction (p. 1) explicitly proposes two complementary facets of the neural implementation of cognitive reserve: neural reserve and neural compensation. The paper then defines and contrasts them in the Introduction (pp. 1–2). (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“These observations using cerebral blood flow have been replicated by other groups as well35, 36.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Scans Acquired at Rest
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] Alexander, 1997, Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis, Am J Psychiatry source
- Supportedcites [36] Perneczky, 2006, Schooling mediates brain reserve in Alzheimer's disease: findings of fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry source
The Results report an inverse association between schooling and glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. The Discussion says these findings are supported by other groups’ cerebral-blood-flow studies, while noting that the results do not match exactly because of differences in samples and methods. This paper used FDG-PET rather than measuring cerebral blood flow itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, the concept of CR suggests that the brain actively attempts to cope with brain damage by using pre-existing cognitive processing approaches or by enlisting compensatory approaches15, 16.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] Stern, 2002, What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept, J Int Neuropsychol Soc source
- Supportedcites [16] Stern, 2009, Cognitive reserve, Neuropsychologia source
The “Brain Reserve and Cognitive Reserve” section states that active models such as CR propose that the brain copes with damage using pre-existing cognitive processes or enlisting compensatory processes. This directly supports the paraphrase; no page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We replicated this observation in patients with incident AD28 and also found more rapid decline in cognitive function in AD patients who engaged in more leisure activities prior to dementia onset29.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [28] Scarmeas, 2006, Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Supportedcites [29] Helzner, 2007, Leisure activity and cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Using a covariance method to analyze the imaging data, we identified a spatial pattern of fMRI activation that was expressed by both groups and whose expression increased as the task became more difficult.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [39] Stern, 2012, Task difficulty modulates young-old differences in network expression, Brain Res source
The Functional imaging section identifies a spatial pattern common to young and old participants. The Discussion states that its expression increased logarithmically with task difficulty. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In a follow-up analysis41, we found that atrophy in a key area within the first network (i.e. the one that was used by both young and old) was associated with decreased efficiency in that network and increased utilization of the second network.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [41] Steffener, 2009, The impact of age-related changes on working memory functional activity, Brain Imaging Behav sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Conclusion report that lower grey-matter volume in a region of the primary network was associated with greater secondary-network recruitment. The Discussion interprets this as compensation for an affected primary network, but the Results report no significant association between regional grey-matter volume and primary-network expression; decreased efficiency of that network was not demonstrated. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For example, Basak et al.50 had elders play a complex role-playing game,”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [50] Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol Aging sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method > Participants section says older adults were assigned to play Rise of Nations, and the General Discussion reports transfer benefits after 23.5 hours of training. The paper identifies Rise of Nations as a complex real-time strategy game, not a role-playing game. Its Abstract reports improvement on a subset of cognitive tasks, rather than across the entire battery (page numbers unavailable in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In research with young adults, one particular training approach produced excellent improvement in gameplay, but, more importantly, also showed transfer of training to other tasks.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [55] Gopher, 1994, Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight, Hum Factors source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [56] Gopher, 1989, Practice under changing priorities: an approach to the training of complex skills, Acta Psychol source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Blumen, 2010, Training cognitive control in older adults with the space fortress game: the role of training instructions and basic motor ability, Front Aging Neurosci sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (‘The space fortress game and emphasis change instructions’; page unavailable) reports that emphasis-change instructions improved Space Fortress performance in younger adults compared with standard instructions. It says those instructions *may* be important for transfer, but does not report that this approach demonstrated transfer to other tasks. The General Discussion (page unavailable) says future studies will determine whether such transfer occurs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those who rely more on this alternate network can still perform the task, but do so more poorly.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the average scores on a memory test decline by about one point yearly, but in those with higher educational or occupational attainment scores decline by an additional point each year.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The first network was used by both young and old subjects, and consisted of areas often associated with working memory.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the second network was primarily characterized by activation in parahippocampal areas and was used consistently only by the older subjects.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Interestingly, although the game itself was very challenging for the elders, there were few dropouts and performance improved over time.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [58] Orrell, 1995, Education and dementia, BMJ source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these networks is a group of brain areas that seem to work together as the task is harder.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given these assumptions, individuals with higher CR will begin their cognitive decline when pathology is more advanced and thus have less time until they reach the point where pathology overwhelms function.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, while in some ways interdependent, brain reserve and CR make independent in addition to synergistic contributions to understanding individual differences in clinical resilience to brain pathology.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Cognitive and Brain Reserve
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the cognitive or neural mechanism that underlies this reserve is unknown.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, clinicians must be aware that in the presence of pathology there should still be a period of time during which even the most sensitive measures would fail to detect cognitive change.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals with high reserve, by definition, will not demonstrate disease-related clinical symptoms as early as individuals with low levels of reserve.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Application Of Cognitive Reserve In Clinical Practice
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Since people with greater reserve should be able to tolerate more AD pathology, the onset of clinical dementia should be delayed.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirectn = 593- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible that individuals with more efficient or higher capacity networks could have more resilience in the face of age- or disease-related changes.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Reserve > Neural Mechanisms Underlying CR
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only controlled studies can truly establish that some set of interventions or experiences are beneficial.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Epidemiologic evidence for reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In schizophrenia, small effects of cognitive remediation were noted, particularly in stable patients and when combined with adjunctive rehabilitation52.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
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In the paper
“While the original observations concern easily measurable variables like education or occupational attainment, more recent studies have delved more deeply into lifestyle factors, cognitively stimulating behaviors, personality factors and the like.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
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In the paper
“However, the exact”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings support the possibility that it may be possible to intervene even later in life in order to impart reserve, slow age-related cognitive decline, and prolonged healthy aging.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a hopeful idea, since it suggests that changes in lifestyle even later in life might impart reserve against age-related cognitive decline or dementia.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, focused training has improved working memory capacity and shown transfer of training to nontrained working memory tasks51.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies using these endpoints will be very expensive because they will require a large number of participants and will have to be conducted over several years.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While epidemiologic studies can only describe correlations and do not directly test causation, they are useful for deriving hypotheses and exploring ideas.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By shifting emphasis from game to game, participants cannot fall into a fixed strategy. They must develop the ability to deal with the entire task as a whole – skills that might be termed attentional allocation or executive control.”
§ Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease > Implications of Cognitive Reserve for Remediation and Prevention
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of cognitive reserve, and pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease.
“The assumption is that disease pathology slowly develops over time independently of CR, and that the pathology begins many years before the onset of clinically diagnosed AD.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
There is a common point in all people where pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.
“However, we reasoned that there is common point in all people where the pathology is so severe that function cannot be maintained.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No study to date has shown change in slowed rate of cognitive decline in aging or reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.
“No study to date has shown change in either of these endpoints.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology.
“Since the brain both passively and actively attempts to cope with brain changes or pathology, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to this resilience.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Researchers have long reported that people with more years of formal education are at lower risk for Alzheimer's and other dementias than those with fewer years of formal education.80,[144][145][146][147][148][149]”
From 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures (2023) · cites this paper as [146]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This concept was theoretically framed by Park and Bischof (2013) as “scaffolding,” similar to the closely related cognitive reserve theory proposed by Stern (2012).”
In the citing paper
“supporting the theory that a greater cognitive reserve could help protect against development of LOAD117.”
From Genetic meta-analysis of diagnosed Alzheimer’s disease identifies new risk loci and implicates Aβ, tau, immunity and lipid processing (2019) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“The level of education, a surrogate marker of cognitive reserves (Stern, 2012), is an important determinant of the expression of VCI, such that for a given level of neuropathology higher education is associated with less cognitive deficits (Zieren et al., 2013).”
From The Pathobiology of Vascular Dementia (2013) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“These findings lead to the suggestion that higher social engagement and support experienced both before and during lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic might have had a protective/mitigating role by contributing to cognitive (51) and affective reserve (52).”
From The impact of COVID-19 infection and enforced prolonged social isolation on neuropsychiatric symptoms in older adults with and without dementia: A review (2020) · cites this paper as [51]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve theory suggests that individuals differ in their level of resilience against brain pathology and hence may exhibit differences in cognitive function despite equivalent levels of pathology (Stern, 2002(Stern, , 2012)).”
From Living alone and cognitive function in later life (2019) · cites this paper as Stern, 2012
In the citing paper
“The theory suggests that individuals differ in their degree of resilience against age-related brain pathology and hence may show differences in cognitive function in relation to an equivalent level of pathology [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reserve is a theoretical concept that may account for the role of social isolation and its association with cognitive outcomes in later life.”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Such individuals are likely to receive less cognitive stimulation through social contact, resulting in lower cognitive reserve and hence poorer cognitive function [8, 9].”
From Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people (2018) · cites this paper as [9]
Citations
Cites
What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept
STERN, Y. (2002) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617702813248 · Cited by 3,951
Self-citationRunning increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/6368 · Cited by 3,880
Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
Self-citationRunning enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice
van Praag, H., Christie, B. R., Sejnowski, T. J., & Gage, F. H. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.23.13427 · Cited by 2,904
Neural consequences of enviromental enrichment
van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (2000) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/35044558 · Cited by 2,468
A Meta-Analysis of Cognitive Remediation for Schizophrenia: Methodology and Effect Sizes
Wykes, T., Huddy, V., Cellard, C., McGurk, S. R., & Czobor, P. (2011) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10060855 · Cited by 1,693
Training and plasticity of working memory
Klingberg, T. (2010) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 · Cited by 1,585
Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
Stern, Y. (1994) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032 · Cited by 1,434
Self-citationAgeing, fitness and neurocognitive function
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., Harrison, C. R., Chason, J., Vakil, E., Bardell, L., Boileau, R. A., et al. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/22682 · Cited by 1,394
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Research works printed but not linked: 1
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,401–1,500 of 3,537
Adult-Life Occupational Exposures: Enriched Environment or a Stressor for the Aging Brain?
Burzynska, A. Z., Jiao, Y., & Ganster, D. C. (2018) · Work Aging and Retirement · doi:10.1093/workar/way007 · Cited by 15
Ihle, A., Fagot, D., Vallet, F., Ballhausen, N., Mella, N., Baeriswyl, M., Sauter, J., Oris, M., Maurer, J., & Kliegel, M. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000497 · Cited by 15
Hahn, C., & Lee, C. U. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00786 · Cited by 15
“Stern and colleagues summarized all of the studies that calculated the protective effects of higher CR and found that it reduced the risk of developing dementia by 46% (20).”
BackgroundYang, K. Y., Chen, G., Sheng, C., Xie, Y., Li, Y., Hu, X., Sun, Y., & Han, Y. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-200082 · Cited by 16
“According to the concept of reserve in which the protective effects occur in the early stage of AD and disappear beyond a certain threshold [12], APOE (cid:2) 4 may affect the capacity of reserve by aggravating the pathological burden of AD.”
Reuter, E., Leow, L., & Carroll, T. J. (2020) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.09.038 · Cited by 14
Measuring and managing cognitive impairment in HIV
Nightingale, S., & Winston, A. (2017) · AIDS · doi:10.1097/qad.0000000000001402 · Cited by 17
Heger, I., van Boxtel, M., Deckers, K., Bosma, H., Verhey, F., & Köhler, S. (2024) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610223000819 · Cited by 14
Cognitive reserve can impact trajectories in ageing: a longitudinal study
Montemurro, S., Rumiati, R. I., Pucci, V., Nucci, M., & Mondini, S. (2025) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-025-03000-z · Cited by 18
“This pattern was repeatedly proposed later in further studies [9] in which a model was developed indicating that patients with Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) with higher CR have more rapid rates of decline.”
Domic‐Siede, M., Sánchez‐Corzo, A., Álvarez, X., Araya, V., Espinoza, C., Zenis, K., Guzmán‐González, M., Irani, M., Perrone‐Bertolotti, M., & Ortiz, R. (2025) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.70075 · Cited by 15
Emerging Molecular Targets in Neurodegenerative Disorders: New Avenues for Therapeutic Intervention
Eroglu, E., & HARMANCI, N. (2025) · Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology · doi:10.1111/bcpt.70107 · Cited by 16
“Such mechanisms may delay the onset of overt symptoms but are eventually overwhelmed as disease progresses [29, 30].”
The Role of Amyloid- and Tau PET in the New Era of Alzheimer Disease Therapies
Chiotis, K., Wang, Y., Joie, R. L., & Rabinovici, G. D. (2025) · Journal of Nuclear Medicine · doi:10.2967/jnumed.124.268339 · Cited by 18
“However, these relationships are further modi fi ed by many factors that convey increased resilience or susceptibility to tau pathology, including participant age, sex, the presence of copathologies, education level, and other factors that impact cognitive and brain reserve ( 44 , 45 ).”
Thoma, M. V., Forstmeier, S., Schmid, R., Kellner, O., Xepapadakos, F., Schreiter-Gasser, U., Blessing, A., Ropohl, A., Bieri-Brüning, G., Debeer, D., et al. (2018) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-018-0865-5 · Cited by 14
Adeosun, S. O., Hou, X., Shi, L., Stockmeier, C. A., Zheng, B., Raffaı̈, R. L., Weisgraber, K. H., Mosley, T. H., & Wang, J. M. (2019) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2019.03.012 · Cited by 12
“…hippocampal volume or longitudinal hippocampal volume loss may be an early sign or predisposing factor of the disease (Apostolova LG, 2006; Golomb et al., 1996; Grundman et al., 2002; Wolf et al., 2004) based on the concept of [structural] brain reserve (Stern, 2012; Vuoksimaa et al., 2013).”
BackgroundMethodThe older worker: gender and age discrimination in the workplace
Francioli, S. P., & North, M. S. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816094-7.00013-1 · Cited by 17
“At a physical level, capacities tend to diminish (see Crawford, Graveling, Cowie, & Dixon, 2010 for a detailed review) and health risks increase (Knopman, et al., 2001; Niccoli & Partridge, 2012; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundChai, K., Liang, J., Zhang, X., Cao, P., Chen, S.-F., Gu, H., Ye, W., Liu, R., Hu, W., Peng, C., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.707165 · Cited by 14
“Several hypotheses, such as DNA damage, loss of neural circuits and synapses, and mitochondrial dysfunction theories, were established (Lu et al., 2004; Yankner et al., 2008; Stern, 2012; Hou et al., 2019).”
BackgroundKim, R., & Chung, W. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10061062 · Cited by 14
Exercise and the Brain in Cardiovascular Disease: A Narrative Review
Taylor, J. L. (2022) · Heart and Mind · doi:10.4103/hm.hm_50_22 · Cited by 15
Rahmani, A., Najand, B., Sonnega, A. J., Akhlaghipour, G., Mendez, M. F., Assari, S., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2022) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-022-01499-w · Cited by 14
“CR refers to specific characteristics that maintain cognitive functions in the presence of weakened brain integrity associated with disorders of aging [13, 71], and years of education have been frequently considered a proxy for cognitive reserve [60].”
Colavitta, M. F., Grasso, L., & Barrantes, F. J. (2023) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.14283/jpad.2023.5 · Cited by 15
MacDonald, B., Berrios-Siervo, G. M., Díaz‐Santos, M., Sánchez, O., Suárez, P., Diaz, A. L., Moss, N. C., & Strutt, A. M. (2023) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acac108 · Cited by 14
Du, Y., Luo, Y., Zheng, X., & Liu, J. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.08.084 · Cited by 14
Neighborhood Features and Cognitive Function: Moderating Roles of Individual Socioeconomic Status
Yang, T., Kim, S., Choi, S., Halloway, S., Mitchell, U. A., & Shaw, B. A. (2023) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2023.10.012 · Cited by 13
Parra, M. A., Gazes, Y., Habeck, C. G., & Stern, Y. (2024) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.14283/jpad.2024.11 · Cited by 14
Self-citationYu, H., Tan, C., Huang, S.-J., Zhang, X.-H., Tan, L., & Xu, W. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.03.009 · Cited by 14
“Cognitive reserve might influence the MCI reversion through mechanisms like neural compensation, which means the brain forms compensatory paths to offset the initial neural changes that result in MCI (Iraniparast et al., 2022; Stern et al., 1995; Stern, 2012).”
Htun, H. L., Teshale, A. B., Owen, A. J., Ryan, J. L., Woods, R. L., Orchard, S. G., Hajek, A., Lysen, T. S., Shah, R. C., Chong, T. T. ‐., et al. (2024) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbae050 · Cited by 15
“…in frequent social interactions, such as meaningful conversations, idea exchanges, and reminiscing about family histories, may stimulate various cognitive domains, leading to increased synaptic activity and neuronal growth (Scarmeas & Stern, 2003; Steffener & Stern, 2012; van Praag et al., 2000).”
BackgroundIskandar, M., Martindale, J., Bynum, J., & Davis, M. A. (2024) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.14283/jpad.2024.97 · Cited by 15
“Cognitive resilience has emerged as a mechanism that may help explain differences in cognitive function associated with aging and/or pathology – it is believed that higher cognitive resilience may delay the development of cognitive symptoms (4).”
Workplace Aging: The Reciprocal Relationship Between Adult Development and Work
Scheibe, S., & Kooij, D. T. A. M. (2024) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-010923-093135 · Cited by 24
Yang, Q., & Yu, T. (2024) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-024-05576-z · Cited by 19
“These abilities become relatively stable and resistant to change as they are continuously applied and reinforced [19–21].”
Han, X., Li, Y., Wang, J., Liu, X., Zhang, Y. L., Dong, Q., Song, Y., Cong, L., Zhang, Q., Tang, S. H., et al. (2025) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1177/13872877241306448 · Cited by 14
The impact of PICALM genetic variations on reserve capacity of posterior cingulate in AD continuum
Xu, W., Wang, H.-F., Tan, L., Tan, M., Tan, C.-C., Zhu, X., Miao, D., Yu, W.-J., Jiang, T., Tan, L., et al. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep24480 · Cited by 14
“More than a decade ago, Stern 20,21 proposed the concept of reserve to explain the disjunction between AD pathology degree and severity of clinical performances.”
BackgroundSelf-citationde Matos, A. I. P., Mourão, I., & Coelho, E. (2016) · Motricidade · doi:10.6063/motricidade.6805 · Cited by 12
“…experiências que proporciona, afirmando ainda que determinadas experiências de vida (i.e. educação, ocupação e lazer) se encontram associadas com um menor declínio cognitivo (taxas mais lentas de declínio da memória), e a uma redução do risco de demência (Deary et al., 2009; Stern, 2009, 2012).”
BackgroundTrajectories of general cognition and dementia in English older population: An exploration
Tampubolon, G., Nazroo, J. Y., & Pendleton, N. (2017) · European Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.eurger.2017.08.001 · Cited by 14
L2 proficiency predicts inhibitory ability in L1-dominant speakers
Hui, N. Y., Yuan, M., Fong, M. C., & Wang, W. Y. (2020) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/1367006920914399 · Cited by 14
“Even though they were the same generation living in the same place, they might have had very different life experiences, which are known to affect cognition in old age (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialMemory reconsolidation as a tool to endure encoding deficits in elderly
Tassone, L. M., Benítez, F. A. U., Rochon, D., Martínez, P. B., Bonilla, M., León, C. S., Muchnik, C., Solis, P. C. L., Medel, N., Kochen, S. S., et al. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237361 · Cited by 15
“Cognitive reserve is a hypothetical construct that provides an explanation for the unequal susceptibility to age—related brain changes between different people, whence some subjects could hold out these changes maintaining their cognitive functioning [48].”
BackgroundHalloway, S., Schoeny, M. E., Barnes, L. L., Arvanitakis, Z., Pressler, S. J., Braun, L. T., Volgman, A. S., Gamboa, C. J., & Wilbur, J. (2020) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2020.106254 · Cited by 15
Vlachos, G. S., Kosmidis, M. H., Yannakoulia, M., Dardiotis, E., Hadjigeorgiou, G. M., Tzoulaki, I., Georgiou, A. N., Sakka, P., Anastasiou, C. A., Stefanis, L., et al. (2021) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-021-01819-w · Cited by 16
Is heart failure with preserved ejection fraction a ‘dementia’ of the heart?
Tini, G., Cannata, A. N., Canepa, M., Masci, P. G., Pardini, M., Giacca, M., Sinagra, G., Marchionni, N., del Monte, F., Udelson, J. E., et al. (2021) · Heart Failure Reviews · doi:10.1007/s10741-021-10114-9 · Cited by 13
“Pathological protein accumulation and white matter damage due to vascular lesions coexist and contribute to cognitive decline, via a progressive erosion of cognitive and brain reserve, which may initially only cause transient functional impairment (with normal or near-normal performance in inter-critical stages), but…”
BackgroundLin, Y., Initiative, A. D. N., Zeng, Q., Hu, M., Peng, G., & Luo, B. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-201244 · Cited by 14
Quality of Education and Late-Life Cognitive Function in a Population-Based Sample From Puerto Rico
Barba, C., García, A. F., Clay, O. J., Wadley, V. G., Andel, R., Dávila, A. L., & Crowe, M. G. (2021) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igab016 · Cited by 14
“For example, it has been found that individuals with greater occupational attainment may have steeper declines after the initial appearance of clinical symptoms of dementia (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundGraßhoff, J., Beller, J., Kuhlmann, B. G., & Geyer, S. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254038 · Cited by 13
“These findings also apply to the three single countries, and the rapid age-related decline from high levels of cognitive ability are in accordance with the concept of cognitive reserve as developed by Stern [42].”
ResultAvedesian, J. M., Singh, H., Diekfuss, J. A., Myer, G. D., & Grooms, D. R. (2021) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-021-01527-5 · Cited by 14
Jonson, M., Sigström, R., Hedna, K., Sterner, T. R., Falk, H., Wetterberg, H., Fässberg, M. M., Wærn, M., & Skoog, I. G. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721004335 · Cited by 14
“Further, evidence suggests that the incidence and prevalence of dementia are on the decline in Western countries (Wu et al., 2017), which may be related to increased educational level (Skoog et al., 2017) and thereby an increased cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012).”
Camprodon‐Boadas, P., Rosa-Justícia, M., Sugranyes, G., Moreno, D. M., Baeza, I., Ilzarbe, D., Díaz‐Caneja, C. M., Ayora, M., Merchán‐Naranjo, J., Martín, N., et al. (2022) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-022-01957-0 · Cited by 13
“Different studies have shown that CR acts as a moderator between the degree of brain pathology and the manifestation of clinical symptoms, and that people with a high CR are able to tolerate higher levels of brain damage, offsetting the effects of the disease [29, 31, 41, 42].”
BackgroundShen, S., Cheng, J., Li, J., Xie, Y., Wang, L., Zhou, X., Zhou, W., Zhu, L., Wang, T., Tu, J., et al. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04159-9 · Cited by 15
“In addition, young people are more social, which is considered to have a protective effect on cognitive function [29, 30].”
Cognitive reserve and risk of mobility impairment in older adults
Holtzer, R., Zhu, X., Rosso, A. L., & Rosano, C. (2022) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.17979 · Cited by 13
“Measures of CR often include socio-demographic variables and objective neuropsychological tests of reading and verbal IQ that are presumed to be insensitive to age-related decline.(12,13) The residuals approach, however, presents conceptual and methodological advantages to the assessment of CR by removing variance on…”
BackgroundLin, L., Jin, Y., Xiong, M., Wu, S., & Sun, S. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su151411336 · Cited by 16
“A more robust approach would be to prioritize the moderating effect hypothesis, which suggests that individuals with greater CR demonstrate less reliance on the brain structure to maintain cognitive abilities compared to those with lower CR scores [49,50].”
BackgroundRannikko, I., Murray, G. K., Juola, P., Salo, H., Haapea, M., Miettunen, J., Veijola, J. M., Barnett, J. H., Husa, A. P., Jones, P. B., et al. (2015) · Schizophrenia Research Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.scog.2015.08.001 · Cited by 14
“Cognitive reserve, the ability of the mind to compensate in some way for brain changes, has been proposed in dementia and ageing research as a moderator between brain change and clinical outcome (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundPractice of Aerobic Sports is Associated with Better Spatial Memory in Adults and Older Men
Sánchez-Horcajo, R., Llamas-Alonso, J., & Cimadevilla, J. M. (2015) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2015.1001656 · Cited by 14
“individual differences, scientists resort to the concept of cognitive reserve, a term often used to account for individual differences in healthy aging and response to pathological conditions (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundCalzà, L., Baldassarro, V. A., Giuliani, A., Lorenzini, L., Fernández, M., Mangano, C., Sivilia, S., Alessandri, M., Gusciglio, M., Torricella, R., et al. (2013) · Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.2174/15680266113139990140 · Cited by 14
Lamotte, G. J., Morello, R., Lebasnier, A., Agostini, D., Bouvard, G., Sayette, V. D. L., & Defer, G. L. (2016) · Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2016.05.009 · Cited by 14
“Current evidence suggests that higher education has a protective effect on the risk of developing clinical Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [3].”
BackgroundHippocampal Volumetry as a Biomarker for Dementia in People with Low Education
Mondragón, J. D., Celada-Borja, C., Barinagarrementería-Aldatz, F., Burgos-Jaramillo, M., & Barragán-Campos, H. M. (2016) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders Extra · doi:10.1159/000449424 · Cited by 13
Sato, T., Ohi, Y., Kato, D., Mizuno, M., Takase, H., Kanamori, T., Borlongan, C. V., Haji, A., & Matsukawa, N. (2017) · Cell Transplantation · doi:10.1177/0963689717721232 · Cited by 13
White Matter Microstructure in Illiterate and Low-Literate Elderly Brazilians: Preliminary Findings
Resende, E. D. P. F., Tovar-Moll, F. F., Ferreira, F. M., Bramati, I. E., de Souza, L. C., Carmona, K. C., Guimarães, H. C., Carvalho, V. A., Barbosa, M. T., & Caramelli, P. (2018) · Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology · doi:10.1097/wnn.0000000000000173 · Cited by 15
Topiwala, A., Suri, S., Allan, C. L., Valkanova, V., Filippini, N., Sexton, C. E., Heise, V., Zsoldos, E., Mahmood, A., Singh‐Manoux, A., et al. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211273 · Cited by 16
Vicario, S., Pérez-Rivas, A., de Guevara‐Miranda, D. L., Santín, L. J., & Sampedro‐Piquero, P. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106399 · Cited by 13
Exploring the role of RALYL in Alzheimer’s disease reserve by network-based approaches
Zhang, Y., Wang, J., Liu, X., & Liu, H. (2020) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-020-00733-z · Cited by 14
Matías-Guíu, J., Pérez-Martínez, D., & Matias-Guiu, J. (2016) · Neurología (English Edition) · doi:10.1016/j.nrleng.2015.02.003 · Cited by 5
“visit Usability (1-10) and satisfaction (1-10) scales”
InfluentialAssociations between handedness and executive function in upper-middle-aged people
Hatta, T. (2017) · Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1080/1357650x.2017.1358273 · Cited by 14
“…Robertson (2014) claimed to show the re-examination of the right hemisphere ageing hypothesis and stressed a special role of the right hemisphere in the cognitive ageing theory, such as cognitive reserve (Stern, 2012) and brain maintenance (Nyberg, Lovden, Riklund, Lindenberger, & Baeckman, 2012).”
BackgroundThe Social Construction of Dementia
Wray, A. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190917807.003.0004 · Cited by 14
Proper name retrieval in cognitive decline
Montemurro, S., Mondini, S., Nucci, M., & Semenza, C. (2018) · The Mental Lexicon · doi:10.1075/ml.18004.mon · Cited by 16
Greenberg, K., & Burgard, S. A. (2021) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.01.006 · Cited by 15
Aging in Adult Survivors of Childhood Cancer: Implications for Future Care
Schuitema, I., Alexander, T. C., Hudson, M. M., Krull, K. R., & Edelstein, K. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1200/jco.20.02534 · Cited by 14
Depression, cognitive reserve markers, and dementia risk in the general population
Jia, F., Wang, J., Wei, N., Sun, D., & Cao, F. (2021) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2021.1972932 · Cited by 14
“Cognitive reserve, the capacity to preserve cognitive function despite damage to the brain (Stern, 2012), is another key determining factor in the clinical progression of dementia.”
BackgroundRibeiro, F. S., Duarte, Y. A. D. O., Santos, J. L. F., & Leist, A. K. (2021) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-021-02542-x · Cited by 15
“Thus, income may be a general indicator of more advantaged socioeconomic conditions but may also, to some extent, reflect higher occupational complexity, which has been hypothesised to help mitigate the negative effects of brain changes in older age [52, 53].”
BackgroundSocial network and the risk for developing mild cognitive impairment and dementia among older adults
Eymundsdóttir, H., SIGURDARDOTTIR, S. T., Ramel, A., Jónsson, P. V., Gudnason, V. G., Launer, L. J., & Chang, M. (2022) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-022-02150-8 · Cited by 13
“The modifiable lifestyle risk factors that have exhibited the strongest associations with a reduced risk of cognitive decline are nonsmoking [15], physical activity [16], diet [17], moderate alcohol consumption [18] and involvement in cognitively stimulating activities [3].”
BackgroundKnodt, A. R., Meier, M. H., Ambler, A. P., Gehred, M. Z., Harrington, H., Ireland, D. R., Poulton, R., Ramrakha, S., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., et al. (2022) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.06.018 · Cited by 13
“As the number of older adults using cannabis reaches historical highs (23), it is increasingly important to identify how long-term use contributes to diminished cognitive reserves (24,25) and increased risk for aging-related diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias (ADRDs) (26,27).”
BackgroundOlder people with severe loneliness have an atrophied thalamus, hippocampus, and entorhinal cortex
Imai, A., Matsuoka, T., & Narumoto, J. (2022) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5845 · Cited by 15
“reported that brain structure is affected by social ties, resulting in more efficient use of brain networks.(52) Neurogenesis(53) and synapse density(54) have been identified to be closely related to one's lifestyle and stimuli from the environment.”
BackgroundLocal striatal volume and motor reserve in drug-naïve Parkinson’s disease
Jeong, S. H., Lee, E.-C., Chung, S. J., Lee, H. S., Jung, J. H., Sohn, Y. H., Seong, J., & Lee, P. H. (2022) · npj Parkinson s Disease · doi:10.1038/s41531-022-00429-1 · Cited by 13
Alrwaita, N., Houston‐Price, C., Meteyard, L., Voits, T., & Pliatsikas, C. (2023) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728923000056 · Cited by 14
“More persistent cognitive benefits are reported to be related to life-long experiences, including years of education, occupational attainment and leisure activities (Stern, 2012).”
The unique neuropathological vulnerability of the human brain to aging
Ferrer, I. (2023) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2023.101916 · Cited by 15
“…group of factors that constitute the cognitive reserve, linked to educational and occupational acquisition, social networks, and leisure activities in later life, which have a protective effect (Stern, 2012; Lesuis et al., 2018; Montine et al., 2019; Weisenbach et al., 2019; Peng et al., 2022).”
Colombo, B., Hamilton, A., Telazzi, I., & Balzarotti, S. (2023) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-023-02424-9 · Cited by 13
Chen, S., Tang, L., Chen, J., et al. (2023) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.15871 · Cited by 13
Bernini, S., Conti, S., Perdixi, E., Jesuthasan, N., Costa, A. C., Severgnini, M., Ramusino, M. C., & Prinelli, F. (2024) · The journal of nutrition health & aging · doi:10.1016/j.jnha.2024.100040 · Cited by 13
“…suggested that socio-cultural and living conditions may affect cognition both indirectly, by influencing health and lifestyle changes [19 – 22], and directly, by affecting the level of cognitive reserve and consequently, the level of tolerance to pathological changes in brain structure [23,24].”
Cortical folding correlates to aging and Alzheimer’s Disease’s cognitive and CSF biomarkers
de Moraes, F. H. P., Sudo, F. K., Monteiro, M., de Melo, B. R. P., Mattos, P., Mota, B., & Tovar-Moll, F. F. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-50780-3 · Cited by 13
“Concerning the cortical folding variables, future studies must overcome the methodological limitations of comparing samples acquired on different sites to focus on the impact of socio-economic-demographic 43 , cognitive reserve 44 , and cognitive protection 45 on K, S, and I.”
BackgroundTau accumulation is associated with dopamine deficiency in vivo in four-repeat tauopathies
Ferschmann, C., Messerschmidt, K., Gnörich, J. S., Barthel, H., MAREK, K. L., Palleis, C., Katzdobler, S., Stockbauer, A., Fietzek, U. M., Finze, A., et al. (2024) · European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging · doi:10.1007/s00259-024-06637-6 · Cited by 15
Cognitive reserve in ALS: the role of occupational skills and requirements
Rhodes, E., Alfa, S., Jin, H. A., Massimo, L. M., Elman, L. B., Amado, D. A., Baer, M., Quinn, C. C., & McMillan, C. T. (2024) · Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Degeneration · doi:10.1080/21678421.2024.2336113 · Cited by 12
“The protective effect of CR has been observed across neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer ’ s disease (10), frontotemporal dementia (7), and Parkinson ’ s disease (11).”
Age-related neural changes underlying long-term recognition of musical sequences
Bonetti, L., Fernández‐Rubio, G., Lumaca, M., Carlomagno, F., Olsen, E. R., Criscuolo, A., Kotz, S. A., Vuust, P., Brattico, E., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2024) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-024-06587-7 · Cited by 21
Linking cognitive and behavioral reserve: Evidence from the CAN‐PROTECT study
Guan, D. X., Mortby, M. E., Pike, G. B., Ballard, C. G., Creese, B., Corbett, A., Pickering, E., Hampshire, A., Roach, P., Smith, E. E., et al. (2024) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Translational Research & Clinical Interventions · doi:10.1002/trc2.12497 · Cited by 15
Spisto, M., Moretta, P., Senerchia, G., Iuzzolino, V. V., Aruta, L., Salvatore, E., Santangelo, G., Trojano, L., & Dubbioso, R. (2025) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.70171 · Cited by 14
“Patients with advanced impairments had fewer years of education, reinforcing the role of cognitive reserve in modulating the impact of brain damage, as observed in Alzheimer's disease [37], FTD [38], and ALS [34].”
Beneficial Effects of an Integrated Psychostimulation Program in Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease
Ibarria, M., Alegret, M., Valero, S., Morera, A., Guitart, M., Cañabate, P., Moreno, M., Lara, S., Diego, S., Hernández, J., et al. (2016) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-150455 · Cited by 15
“Neural reserve is the idea that cognitive between individuals in the resilience of pre-existing cognitive networks, and neural compensation is the idea that some individuals might be better than others at using compensatory mechanisms” [47].”
How the cognitive reserve interacts with β-amyloid deposition in mitigating FDG metabolism
Carapelle, E., Serra, L., Modoni, S., Falcone, M., Caltagirone, C., Bozzali, M., Specchio, L. M., & Avolio, C. (2017) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000005876 · Cited by 13
“According to this assumption, AD patients with higher as compared with those with lower CR would require a more severe accumulation of AD pathology to exhibit the same level of cognitive impairment.([12]) This is supported by evidence from PET studies, indicating an inverse relationship between GU and years of formal…”
BackgroundResultTort‐Merino, A., Olives, J., León, M., et al. (2019) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-190046 · Cited by 13
Multilingualism and Dementia Risk: Longitudinal Analysis of the Nun Study
Hack, E. E., Dubin, J. A., Fernandes, M. A., Costa, S. M., & Tyas, S. L. (2019) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-181302 · Cited by 17
Hsu, C. L., Crockett, R. A., Chan, P., ten Brinke, L., Doherty, S., & Liu-Ambrose, T. Y. L. (2019) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112216 · Cited by 13
Impact of occupational complexity on cognitive decline in the oldest-old
Hakiki, B., Pancani, S., Portaccio, E., Molino-Lova, R., Sofi, F., Macchi, C., & Cecchi, F. (2020) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2020.1746739 · Cited by 15
“This process induces them to develop compensatory approaches and strategies which may influence the level of cognitive function and the rate of cognitive decline in advanced age (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundA machine learning approach to risk assessment for alcohol withdrawal syndrome
Burkhardt, G., Adorjan, K., Kambeitz, J. P., Kambeitz‐Ilankovic, L., Falkai, P., Eyer, F., Koller, G., Pogarell, O. M., Koutsouleris, N., & Dwyer, D. (2020) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.03.016 · Cited by 14
Pardo, J. V., Nyabwari, S. M., Lee, J. T., & Initiative, A. D. N. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex Communications · doi:10.1093/texcom/tgaa020 · Cited by 13
“Patients with incipient AD who have exposures including high educational and occupational attainment have far greater neuropathology on clinical presentation and more rapid decline (Stern 2012).”
BackgroundZhang, J., Lü, N., & Wang, W. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17186560 · Cited by 13
“The concept of cognitive reserve is related to the levels of brain function and plays an important role in delaying the onset and reducing the rate of progression of cognitive impairment [4,5].”
BackgroundInfluentialStroop switching card test: brief screening of executive functions across the lifespan
Belghali, M., Statsenko, Y. A., & Laver, V. (2020) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2020.1844865 · Cited by 15
“The latter posits that those with a high cognitive reserve display better executive performance than those with low cognitive reserve, despite an equivalent level of frontal brain damages (Cabeza et al., 2019; Machado et al., 2012; Stern, 2012; Salthouse, 2017).”
BackgroundIhle, A., Gouveia, É. R., de Gouveia, B. R. F. O., Orsholits, D., Oris, M., & Kliegel, M. (2020) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000511768 · Cited by 13
A Comparison of Neurocognitive Decline in Older Adults in Same-Sex and Opposite-Sex Relationships
Manca, R., & Venneri, A. (2021) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/1567205018666210114111556 · Cited by 13
Sleep disruption and Alzheimer's disease risk: Inferences from men with benign prostatic hyperplasia
Nørgaard, M., Horváth–Puhó, E., Corraini, P., Sørensen, H. T., & Henderson, V. W. (2021) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100740 · Cited by 14
“We used stratified Cox regression analysis to control for age and calendar period and we adjusted for education, personal gross income, and employment status as indicators of cognitive reserve [16].”
MethodJones, S. K., Davies-Thompson, J., & Tree, J. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.621772 · Cited by 15
“Greater cognitive reserve has been observed repeatedly to manifest in delayed onset of dementia despite similar levels of pathology (Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodResultLin, Z., & Chen, X. (2021) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100767 · Cited by 18
“Particularly, promoting interventions targeting key social and environmental factors across the lifespan may increase individuals’ resilience to brain pathologies and therefore reduce vulnerability to cognitive impairment and dementia (Borenstein & Mortimer, 2016b, pp. 49–53; Stern, 2012).”
BackgroundManca, R., Marco, M. D., Colston, A., Raymont, V., Amin, J., Davies, R., Kumar, P., Russell, G., Blackburn, D. J., & Venneri, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.877595 · Cited by 12
“, cognitive reserve of patients may have been depleted by lack of social stimulation (38).”
BackgroundSpindler, M., & Thiel, C. M. (2022) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-022-00630-3 · Cited by 14
“Furthermore, microstructural signs of aging in the hippocampus could be reduced by cognitive stimulation/environmental richness [10] and by physical exercise [11].”
BackgroundDevelopment of Cerebellar Reserve
Mitoma, H., Kakei, S., & Manto, M. U. (2022) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11193013 · Cited by 13
Axonal degeneration and amyloid pathology predict cognitive decline beyond cortical atrophy
Svenningsson, A. L., Stomrud, E., Palmqvist, S., Hansson, O., & Ossenkoppele, R. (2022) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-022-01081-w · Cited by 14
“However, the association between brain structure and cognitive performance is not perfect, and there are great interindividual differences [5].”
BackgroundArafa, A., Teramoto, M., Maeda, S., Sakai, Y., Nosaka, S., Gao, Q., Kawachi, H., Kashima, R., Matsumoto, C., & Kokubo, Y. (2022) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-022-02902-z · Cited by 15
“Older people with rich cognitive reserve, attained from leisure activities, can tolerate these changes and maintain cognitive functions [41].”
BackgroundHow an Intergenerational Book Club Can Prevent Cognitive Decline in Older Adults: A Pilot Study
Plummer, J., Nguyen, K., Everly, J., Kiesow, A., Leith, K. H., Aging, C. O. G. S. I., & Neils-Strunjas, J. (2023) · Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1177/23337214221150061 · Cited by 15
“Individuals who are cognitively, socially, and intellectually active have shown to have higher levels of cognitive reserve, thus decreasing their risk of cognitive decline and dementia (Stern, 2012).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Stern, Y.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University Irving Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stern, Yaakov
- ORCID
- Stern, Yaakov
- Venue
- The Lancet Neurology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1006-1012
- ISSN
- 1474-4422 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3507991
- OpenAlex
- W2144907160
- Cited by
- 3,557
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 412 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 311 · 2023: 343 · 2022: 281 · 2021: 303 · 2020: 350 · 2019: 292 · 2018: 244 · 2017: 213 · 2016: 176 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 93 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- The Lancet Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG026158, R01AG014671)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Keywords
- cognitive reserve, brain reserve, Alzheimer's disease, cognitive aging, dementia risk, educational attainment, occupational attainment, leisure
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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