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Cited by 120Nutrition, Health and Food BehaviorDietary Effects on HealthNutritional Studies and Diet

A high eating frequency is associated with an overall healthy lifestyle in middle-aged men and women and reduced likelihood of general and central obesity in men

Open access
Holmbäck, Isabel, Ericson, Ulrika, Gullberg, Bo, Wirfält, Elisabet·2010·British Journal of Nutrition
DOI 10.1017/s0007114510001753
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Abstract

The role of eating frequency in obesity development is debated. Therefore, we investigated the association between eating frequency, BMI and waist circumference (WC), as well as how eating frequency is related to diet composition and lifestyle factors. A subsample (aged 47–68 years) of men (n 1355) and women (n 1654) from the Malmö Diet and Cancer cohort was used for the present cross-sectional study. The daily eating frequency was calculated based on the number of self-reported eating occasions during an ordinary day. Regression analysis and ANOVA examined the associations between eating frequency, BMI and WC, while adjusting for potential confounders. The energy percentage (E%) from carbohydrates as well as relative fibre intake (g/MJ) increased with higher eating frequency; while E% from fat, protein and alcohol decreased. A low daily eating frequency was associated with smoking, higher alcohol consumption, and lower leisure-time physical activity. Eating three or fewer meals per d was also associated with increased likelihood of general and central obesity in men when adjusting for total energy intake, lifestyle and dietary factors. However, results did not reach statistical significance among women. The present study suggests that a high daily eating frequency is associated with a healthy lifestyle and dietary pattern in both men and women, and a reduced likelihood of general and central obesity in men. There is a need for prospective studies investigating the association between eating frequency, diet and body composition.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a cross-sectional subsample of the Malmö Diet and Cancer cohort, higher daily eating frequency was associated with a healthier lifestyle and dietary pattern in both sexes, and with reduced likelihood of general and central obesity in men. Women showed similar but non-significant tendencies.

Key findings

  • Men reported a mean daily eating frequency of 4·8 (SD 1·2) and women 5·0 (SD 1·1). Higher eating frequency was associated with lower smoking and alcohol consumption, higher leisure-time physical activity, higher energy percentage from carbohydrates, and higher relative fibre intake; energy percentage from fat, protein, and alcohol decreased.
  • Among men, eating three or fewer meals per day was associated with increased likelihood of obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m²: OR 2·45, 95 % CI 1·06, 5·71; P for trend=0·037) and large waist circumference (≥102 cm: OR 2·18, 95 % CI 1·08, 4·37; P for trend=0·029) compared with six or more meals per day in the lifestyle-adjusted model.
  • After additional adjustment for dietary factors, men with low eating frequency still had increased risk of general obesity (OR 2·42, 95 % CI 1·02, 5·73; P=0·044) and central obesity (OR 2·09, 95 % CI 1·03, 4·27; P=0·043).
  • Results in women failed to reach statistical significance. Eating frequency was not significantly associated with overweight or moderate central obesity in men or women, and mean BMI and waist circumference did not differ significantly across eating-frequency categories after adjustment.

Methods

  • Cross-sectional study using a subsample of the Malmö Diet and Cancer cohort: 3009 participants aged 47–68 years (1355 men, 1654 women) who joined from January 1993 to March 1994. Main analyses excluded energy misreporters and those reporting past food habit change, leaving 892 men and 1024 women.
  • Daily eating frequency was calculated from self-reported eating occasions during an ordinary day, excluding coffee and tea, and categorised as three or fewer, four to five, or six or more eating occasions per day.
  • Diet was assessed by an interview-based modified diet history method combining a 7-day menu book and a 168-item dietary questionnaire. Sex-specific ANOVA and logistic regression examined associations with BMI, waist circumference, and obesity, adjusting for age, education, socio-economic status, smoking, alcohol consumption, leisure-time physical activity, and total energy intake, with further models adding nutrient and food-group variables.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the cross-sectional design makes it impossible to determine cause from effect, including possible reverse causation if obese individuals eat fewer meals as a weight-loss strategy. It also notes possible residual confounding from lifestyle, energy, or dietary intake.
  • The authors state that women had low discriminating power because very few reported three or fewer meals per day, which may explain the non-significant findings in women.
  • The paper notes that misreporting of food intake and social desirability may bias diet–obesity studies; it attempted to reduce this by excluding energy misreporters and subjects reporting past food habit change, but whether under-reporting was selective or general is difficult to determine.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s0007114510001753

Cites

54 of 54 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 37 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    A low daily eating frequency was associated with higher alcohol consumption in middle-aged men and women.

    “A low daily eating frequency was associated with smoking, higher alcohol consumption, and lower leisure-time physical activity.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Men and women with a low daily eating frequency (i.e. three or fewer) were more likely to be younger, current smokers, high alcohol consumers, and less physically active compared with subjects reporting a high daily eating frequency (i.e. six or more).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A low daily eating frequency was associated with smoking in middle-aged men and women.

    “A low daily eating frequency was associated with smoking, higher alcohol consumption, and lower leisure-time physical activity.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Men and women with a low daily eating frequency (i.e. three or fewer) were more likely to be younger, current smokers, high alcohol consumers, and less physically active compared with subjects reporting a high daily eating frequency (i.e. six or more).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In men, eating three or fewer meals per day was associated with increased likelihood of central obesity (waist circumference ≥102 cm) when adjusting for total energy intake, lifestyle and dietary factors.

    “Eating three or fewer meals per d was also associated with increased likelihood of general and central obesity in men when adjusting for total energy intake, lifestyle and dietary factors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the MDC subsample, energy percentage from fat decreased with higher daily eating frequency.

    “The energy percentage (E%) from carbohydrates as well as relative fibre intake (g/MJ) increased with higher eating frequency; while E% from fat, protein and alcohol decreased.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Total EI (MJ), E% from carbohydrates, and relative fibre intake increased significantly with the daily eating frequency, while E% from fat, protein, and alcohol decreased.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A low daily eating frequency was associated with lower leisure-time physical activity in middle-aged men and women.

    “A low daily eating frequency was associated with smoking, higher alcohol consumption, and lower leisure-time physical activity.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Men and women with a low daily eating frequency (i.e. three or fewer) were more likely to be younger, current smokers, high alcohol consumers, and less physically active compared with subjects reporting a high daily eating frequency (i.e. six or more).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 10
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 23

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The daily eating frequency was not significantly associated with having a waist circumference of 94 to <102 cm in men or 80 to <88 cm in women.

    “The daily eating frequency was not significantly associated with the likelihood of being overweight or having a waist circumference of 94 to , 102 cm in men or a waist circumference of 80 to , 88 cm in women.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The daily eating frequency was not significantly associated with the likelihood of being overweight in men or women.

    “The daily eating frequency was not significantly associated with the likelihood of being overweight or having a waist circumference of 94 to , 102 cm in men or a waist circumference of 80 to , 88 cm in women.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Men were more likely than women to report three or fewer meals per day, while women were more likely to report six or more meals per day (P<0.0001).

    “The majority of men and women reported eating between four to five meals per d; however, men were more likely than women to report three or fewer meals per d, while women were more likely to report an eating frequency of six or more meals per d (P, 0•0001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The majority of men and women reported eating between four to five meals per day.

    “The majority of men and women reported eating between four to five meals per d; however, men were more likely than women to report three or fewer meals per d, while women were more likely to report an eating frequency of six or more meals per d (P, 0•0001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    On average, men reported a daily eating frequency of 4.8 (SD 1.2) and women 5.0 (SD 1.1).

    “On average, men reported a daily eating frequency of 4•8 (SD 1•2) with a range of 1-13 (median 4•7).Women reported a daily eating frequency of 5•0 (SD 1•1) with a range of 1-9 (median 5•0).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The eating frequency was defined as all eating occasions during an ordinary day (including meals and snacks), which together with careful checking of self-reported diet information during interview reduces the likelihood of misclassification of eating frequency.

    “In addition, the eating frequency was defined as all eating occasions during an ordinary day (including both meals and snacks), which, together with the careful checking of self-reported diet information during interview, reduces the likelihood of misclassification of eating frequency.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The present study attempted to overcome potential sources of bias by excluding both energy misreporters and subjects reporting past food habit change.

    “The present study attempted to overcome these potential sources of bias by excluding both energy misreporters and subjects reporting to have changed their food habits substantially in the past.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A higher E% from protein may indicate consumption of primarily cooked meals (including meat) for those reporting a low daily eating frequency.

    “A higher E% from protein may indicate consumption of primarily cooked meals (including meat) for those reporting a low daily eating frequency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Individuals with a high daily eating frequency may be more likely to consume healthy snacks (e.g., sandwiches and fruits) between main meals.

    “Individuals with a high daily eating frequency may be more likely to consume healthy snacks (for example, sandwiches and fruits) in between main meals (i.e.cooked meals).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The logistic regression models adjusted for age, education, socio-economic status, smoking, alcohol consumption, leisure-time physical activity and total energy intake.

    “The risk of overweight/obesity and central obesity associated with the daily eating frequency was estimated using logistic regression with six or more meals per d as the reference, while adjusting for age, education, socio-economic status, smoking, alcohol consumption, leisure-time physical activity and total EI.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Body-fat mass and the distribution of body fat are risk factors for diabetes, CVD and several forms of cancer.

    “Since body-fat mass, as well as the distribution of body fat, are risk factors of diabetes, CVD and several forms of cancer (51 -53)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [51]

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    • cites [52]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Several studies have shown sex differences in eating patterns.

    “In addition, several studies have shown sex differences in eating patterns (14,23,24) .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [14]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    A plausible explanation for the observed sex differences in the present study is a low discriminating power due to very few women reporting three or fewer meals per day.

    “A plausible explanation for the observed sex differences in the present study is a low discriminating power due to very few women reporting three or fewer meals per d.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Overweight and obese individuals have been found to have different eating habits in comparison with normal-weight individuals, including morning anorexia and consumption of larger food amounts in the afternoon and evening as well as a higher eating frequency.

    “Overweight and obese individuals have been found to have different eating habits in comparison with normal-weight individuals, including morning anorexia and consumption of larger food amounts in the afternoon and evening as well as a higher eating frequency (14,20 -22) .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Women are more likely to find healthy eating more important and to restrain their eating behaviour.

    “However, women are also more likely to find healthy eating more important, and are more likely to restrain their eating behaviour (25) .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The dietary assessment method's validity and reproducibility have been published.

    “Data on the validity (33,34) and reproducibility (35) of the method have been published.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [33]

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    • cites [34]

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    • cites [35]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Most researchers agree that the current obesity epidemic predominately results from the combination of energy-dense diets and sedentary lifestyles.

    “Most researchers agree that the current obesity epidemic predominately results from the combination of energy-dense diets and sedentary lifestyles (1 -4) .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [1]

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Information about specific factors contributing to weight gain and the development of obesity seems to be either inconclusive or contradictory.

    “However, information about specific factors contributing to weight gain and the development of obesity seems to be either inconclusive or contradictory, primarily since most factors are inter-related and difficulties arise when attempting to isolate the effect of one single factor (9 -12) .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The present results may indicate that individuals with a more active lifestyle, resulting in higher energy expenditure and intake, are likely to consume a more healthy diet, which results in reduced body fatness and waist circumference.

    “Thus, the present results may rather indicate that individuals with a more active lifestyle, resulting in higher energy expenditure and intake, are likely to consume a more 'healthy' diet, which results in reduced body fatness and waist circumference.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The association with a high fibre intake stresses the possible benefits of high-fibre food, including fruit and vegetables.

    “The association with a high fibre intake also stresses the possible benefits of high-fibre food (including fruit and vegetables).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The logistic regression models were in addition adjusted for nutrient and food group variables.

    “Other logistic regression models were in addition adjusted for nutrient and food group variables.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The present cross-sectional study cannot differentiate cause from effect.

    “Because the present cross-sectional study cannot differentiate cause from effect”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Women are often reported to have lower intake of fat, and higher intakes of fruits and vegetables and dietary fibre.

    “Women are often reported to have lower intake of fat, and higher intakes of fruits and vegetables and dietary fibre.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A previous study within the MDC cohort suggests that individuals, especially men, with fibre-rich food patterns are less likely to be centrally obese.

    “A previous study within the MDC cohort suggests that individuals (especially men) with fibre-rich food patterns are less likely to be centrally obese (46) .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [46]

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Sex and several psychosocial and behavioural characteristics are related to energy misreporting, including incomplete recordkeeping by subjects.

    “Sex and several psychosocial and behavioural characteristics are related to energy misreporting, including incomplete recordkeeping by subjects (26) .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    It has previously been hypothesised that a high eating frequency has an impact on appetite control and improves factors such as dietary induced thermogenesis, lipidaemia and glycaemia.

    “It has previously been hypothesised that a high eating frequency has an impact on appetite control, and improves factors such as dietary induced thermogenesis, lipidaemia and glycaemia (47 -49) .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [47]

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    • cites [48] source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    In the present study, it is difficult to determine if a high daily eating frequency in itself has beneficial health effects.

    “However, in the present study it is difficult to determine if a high daily eating frequency in itself has beneficial health effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
27 of 27

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Self-reported eating occasions during an ordinary day accurately reflect participants' usual daily eating frequency.

    “The questionnaire used for assessment of the daily eating frequency included registration of the number and types of meals and snacks eaten during an ordinary day, and how many times per week these meals or snacks usually were eaten.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The exclusion of energy misreporters and subjects with past food habit change does not introduce selection bias that would invalidate the associations.

    “The present study attempted to overcome these potential sources of bias by excluding both energy misreporters and subjects reporting to have changed their food habits substantially in the past.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The self-reported smoking status is accurate.

    “The smoking habits of the participants were defined as current smokers (including irregular smokers), former smokers or neversmokers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The self-reported alcohol consumption is accurate.

    “Alcohol habits were classified as zero, low, medium or high consumption.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The self-reported education and socio-economic status are accurate.

    “Information on socio-economic and lifestyle factors was collected from the structured lifestyle questionnaire.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The statistical models are correctly specified and no unmeasured confounding remains.

    “The risk of overweight/obesity and central obesity associated with the daily eating frequency was estimated using logistic regression with six or more meals per d as the reference, while adjusting for age, education, socio-economic status, smoking, alcohol consumption, leisure-time physical activity and total EI.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Evidence in the literature regarding a possible metabolic effect of eating frequency is inconclusive.

    “Evidence is inconclusive in the literature regarding a possible metabolic effect of eating frequency.”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Eleven studies applied no additional criteria, whereas other studies delineated eating occasions using 15-min, 30-min, 45-min plus 50 kcal, or 59-min intervals.

    “For example, eleven studies( 23 , 45 – 47 , 52 , 66 , 69 , 75 , 78 , 80 , 82 ) applied no additional criteria, whereas in other studies, EO were delineated using 15-min time intervals( 57 , 70 , 77 ), a 30-min interval( 53 ), a 45-min interval plus a 50 kcal (210 kJ) energy criterion( 15 ) and a 59-min interval (applied to meals only)( 48 ).”

    From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [80]

  • In these studies, a higher eating frequency was also associated with higher nutrient densities of folate, vitamin C and Fe, and Ca and K.

    “In these studies, a higher eating frequency was also associated with higher nutrient densities of folate, vitamin C and Fe( 52 , 80 ), and Ca and K( 52 ).”

    From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [80]

  • Adjustment for multiple important sociodemographic and lifestyle-related confounders and exclusion of energy misreporters did not attenuate the significance of the results in these two studies.

    “Adjustment for multiple important sociodemographic and lifestyle-related confounders( 52 ) and exclusion of energy misreporters( 80 ) did not attenuate the significance of the results in these two studies.”

    From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [80]

  • Two large population-based studies, one in US adults and one in Swedish adults, found that those who ate six or more times per day had higher intakes of carbohydrate and fibre but lower intakes of fat and protein compared with adults who ate once or twice per day or less than three times per day, respectively.

    “Two large population-based studies, one in US adults( 52 ) and the other in Swedish adults( 80 ), found that those who ate six or more times per d had higher intakes of carbohydrate and fibre but lower intakes of fat and protein compared with adults who ate once or twice per d or less than three times per d, respectively.”

    From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [80]

  • Some evidence suggests that healthy and unhealthy dietary patterns can exist among individuals who are high-frequency snack consumers.

    “Some evidence( 80 ) also suggests that healthy and unhealthy dietary patterns can exist among individuals who are high-frequency snack consumers.”

    From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [80]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Women's eating-frequency counts do not add up

    Major

    Table 2 lists 134, 382 and 538 women in the three eating-frequency groups, totaling 1054 rather than the stated 1654. The middle group's reported 59•4% also cannot correspond to 382 of 1654 women.

    Reported 1654 · recomputed 1054

  • Men's highest waist-circumference category has conflicting thresholds

    Minor

    Table 1 labels the highest category for men as 94 cm or greater, which overlaps its 94-to-less-than-102 cm category. The methods instead set the threshold for the highest-risk category at 102 cm.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. 1989, Occupations in Population and Housing Census 1985 (FoB 85) according to Nordic standard occupational classification (Nordisk yrkesklassificering NYK) and Swedish socioeconomic classification (Socioekonomisk indelning SEI)
  2. 2000, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic. Report on a WHO Consultation

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Holmbäck, I., Ericson, U., Gullberg, B., & Wirfält, E.
Affiliations
Lund University (SE)
Corresponding author
Holmbäck, Isabel
ORCID
Ericson, Ulrika
Venue
British Journal of Nutrition
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2010-05-26
Volume
104
Issue
7
Pages
1065-1073
ISSN
  • 0007-1145 (ISSN-L)
  • 1475-2662
DOI
10.1017/s0007114510001753
OpenAlex
W2134922168
Semantic Scholar
3944f95d83217d61e63b15d52754c67522ee2f8f
Cited by
120
References
54
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 7
FWCI
4.25
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified)
Locations
  • British Journal Of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Lund University Publications (Lund University) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Lunds Universitet
  • Ernhold Lundströms stiftelse
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Dietary Effects on Health
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
Keywords
meal frequency, obesity, abdominal obesity, body mass index, waist circumference, diet composition, dietary fiber, macronutrient intake, lifestyle factors, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, middle-aged adults, sex differences
MeSH terms
Alcohol Drinking, Analysis of Variance, Energy Intake, Cross-Sectional Studies, Diet, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Life Style, Male, Middle Aged, Obesity, Prospective Studies, Regression Analysis, Risk Factors, Smoking, Sweden, Time Factors, Health Behavior, Exercise, Obesity, Abdominal

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

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Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

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