Snacking patterns influence energy and nutrient intakes but not body mass index
Abstract
Objective To study dietary intake and body mass index (BMI) patterns among US adults, stratified by snacking patterns. Design The 1994–1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) provided the study sample. Snacking episodes were defined as a ‘food and/or beverage break’, and subjects were classified as morning, afternoon, evening, multiple or never snackers. Subjects/setting Our study included data from 1756 men and 1511 women who provided two nonconsecutive, multiple‐pass 24‐h dietary recalls. Statistical analyses Mean values of each subject's two 24‐h recalls were used for analyses, and data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows and SUDAAN. Results Compared with women, men were more likely to be evening, multiple or never snackers. Male multiple snackers had significantly higher energy intakes than did afternoon and never snackers, whereas female multiple snackers had higher energy intakes than did morning, evening and never snackers. At the same time, male and female multiple snackers had more prudent energy‐adjusted intakes of protein, cholesterol, calcium and sodium. Coffee, cola, milk, ice cream and fruits were among the most frequently consumed snacks by men and women. The BMI did not differ significantly across snacker categories. Conclusions These data indicate that snacking patterns have some effects on energy and nutrient intakes but not on BMI. Snack food choices remain a concern, especially beverages, including those that are sweetened. Vegetables and fruits as snacks should be encouraged.
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Only thirteen of these studies examined more than one micronutrient.
“However, only thirteen of these examined more than one micronutrient( 23 , 30 , 46 , 47 , 52 , 64 – 71 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [46]
The participant-identified definition avoids the imposition of a complex criterion to classify eating occasions as meals or snacks.
“While this definition avoids the imposition of a complex criterion to classify EO as meals or snacks( 45 – 47 )”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [46]
Meal patterns were mostly participant-identified, although these studies varied in the additional criteria used to determine an individual eating occasion, meal and/or snack, and their treatment of beverages.
“Meal patterns were mostly participant-identified( 15 , 23 , 45 – 48 , 52 , 53 , 57 , 66 , 69 , 70 , 75 , 77 , 78 , 82 ), although these studies varied in the additional criteria used to determine an individual EO, meal and/or snack, and their treatment of beverages.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [46]
Eleven studies applied no additional criteria, whereas other studies delineated eating occasions using 15-min, 30-min, 45-min plus 50 kcal, or 59-min intervals.
“For example, eleven studies( 23 , 45 – 47 , 52 , 66 , 69 , 75 , 78 , 80 , 82 ) applied no additional criteria, whereas in other studies, EO were delineated using 15-min time intervals( 57 , 70 , 77 ), a 30-min interval( 53 ), a 45-min interval plus a 50 kcal (210 kJ) energy criterion( 15 ) and a 59-min interval (applied to meals only)( 48 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [46]
Three studies found that the proportion of energy from protein but not fat was negatively associated with snacking frequency.
“In contrast, three studies( 45 , 46 , 67 ) found that the proportion of energy from protein but not fat was negatively associated with snacking frequency.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [46]
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- Authors
- Hampl, J. S., Heaton, C. L. B., & Taylor, C. A.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- Arizona Department of Health Services (US)
- Oklahoma State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hampl, J. S.
- Venue
- Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2003-02
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 3-11
- ISSN
- 0952-3871 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-277X
- OpenAlex
- W2015950382
- Cited by
- 156
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 3.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Keywords
- snacking patterns, body mass index, energy intake, nutrient intake, snack food choice, beverage consumption, sweetened beverages, sex differences, dietary intake
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Calcium, Dietary, Energy Intake, Edible Grain, Cholesterol, Dietary, Diet, Diet Surveys, Dietary Fiber, Dietary Proteins, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Nutritional Physiological Phenomena, Mental Recall, Sex Characteristics, Sodium, Dietary, Time Factors, Diet Records, Body Mass Index
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