Fast-food and commercial baked goods consumption and the risk of depression
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: Whereas the relationship between some components of diet, such as n-3 fatty acids and B-vitamins, and depression risk has been extensively studied, the role of fast-food or processed pastries consumption has received little attention. DESIGN: Consumption of fast food (hamburgers, sausages, pizza) and processed pastries (muffins, doughnuts, croissants) was assessed at baseline through a validated semi-quantitative FFQ. Participants were classified as incident cases of depression if they reported a physician diagnosis of depression or the use of antidepressant medication in at least one of the follow-up questionnaires. Cox regression models were fit to assess the relationship between consumption of fast food and commercial baked goods and the incidence of depression. SETTING: The SUN (Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra - University of Navarra Follow-up) Project, Spain. SUBJECTS: Participants (n 8964) from a Spanish cohort. RESULTS: After a median follow-up of 6·2 years, 493 cases of depression were reported. A higher risk of depression was associated with consumption of fast food (fifth (Q5) v. first quintile (Q1): hazard ratio (HR) = 1·36; 95 % CI 1·02, 1·81; P trend = 0·003). The results did not change after adjustment for the consumption of other food items. No linear relationship was found between the consumption of commercial baked goods and depression. Participants belonging to consumption quintiles Q2-Q5 showed an increased risk of depression compared with those belonging to the lowest level of consumption (Q1; HR = 1·38; 95 % CI 1·06, 1·80). CONCLUSIONS: Fast-food and commercial baked goods consumption may have a detrimental effect on depression risk.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Consumption of sweetened beverages, processed foods, and processed pastries has been shown to be associated with increased risk of depression in longitudinal studies.
“The consumption of sweetened beverages (12), processed foods (defined as including sweetened desserts, refined grains, fried foods, processed meats, and highfat dairy products) (13), and processed pastries (muffins, doughnuts, croissants, and other commercial baked goods) (14) has been shown to be associated with an increased risk of depression in longitudinal studies.”
From High glycemic index diet as a risk factor for depression: analyses from the Women’s Health Initiative (2015) · cites this paper as [14]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Brain Serotonin Content: Physiological Regulation by Plasma Neutral Amino Acids
Fernstrom, J. D., & Wurtman, R. J. (1972) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.178.4059.414 · Cited by 1,166 · see citing works
Reproducibility and validity of dietary patterns assessed with a food-frequency questionnaire
Hu, F. B., Rimm, E., Smith-Warner, S. A., Feskanich, D., Stampfer, M. J., Ascherio, A., Sampson, L., & Willett, W. C. (1999) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/69.2.243 · Cited by 1,165 · see citing works
Glycemic index, glycemic load, and chronic disease risk—a meta-analysis of observational studies
Barclay, A. W., Petocz, P., McMillan-Price, J., Flood, V. M., Prvan, T., Mitchell, P., & Brand-Miller, J. C. (2008) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/87.3.627 · Cited by 1,061 · see citing works
Time-to-Event Analysis of Longitudinal Follow-up of a Survey: Choice of the Time-scale
Korn, E. L., Graubard, B. I., & Midthune, D. (1997) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009034 · Cited by 1,011 · see citing works
Fernández-Ballart, J. D., Piñol, J. L., Zazpe, I., Corella, D., Carrasco, P., Toledo, E., Perez-Bauer, M., Martínez-González, M. Á., Salas-Salvadó, J., & Martín-Moreno, J. M. (2010) · British Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114509993837 · Cited by 898 · see citing works
Self-citationLopez-Garcia, E., Schulze, M. B., Fung, T. T., Meigs, J. B., Rifai, N., Manson, J. E., & Hu, F. B. (2004) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/80.4.1029 · Cited by 881 · see citing works
Fung, T. T., Rimm, E. B., Spiegelman, D. L., Rifai, N., Tofler, G. H., Willett, W. C., & Hu, F. B. (2001) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/73.1.61 · Cited by 871 · see citing works
Association of Western and Traditional Diets With Depression and Anxiety in Women
Jacka, F. N., Pasco, J. A., Mykletun, A., Williams, L. J., Hodge, A. M., O'Reilly, S. L., Nicholson, G. C., Kotowicz, M. A., & Berk, M. (2010) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09060881 · Cited by 812 · see citing works
Perceived Effects of Stress on Food Choice
Oliver, G. D., & WARDLE, J. (1999) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(98)00322-9 · Cited by 684 · see citing works
Health effects of trans-fatty acids: experimental and observational evidence
Mozaffarian, D., Aro, A., & Willett, W. C. (2009) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602973 · Cited by 662 · see citing works
Dietary pattern and depressive symptoms in middle age
Akbaraly, T. N., Brunner, E. J., Ferrie, J. E., Marmot, M. G., Kivimaki, M., & Singh-Manoux, A. (2009) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.058925 · Cited by 602 · see citing works
Cognitive impairment following high fat diet consumption is associated with brain inflammation
Pistell, P. J., Morrison, C. D., Gupta, S., Knight, A. G., Keller, J. N., Ingram, D. K., & Bruce‐Keller, A. J. (2009) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2009.11.010 · Cited by 594 · see citing works
Association of the Mediterranean Dietary Pattern With the Incidence of Depression
Sánchez‐Villegas, A., Delgado‐Rodríguez, M., Alonso, Á., Schlatter, J., Lahortiga‐Ramos, F., Serra‐Majem, L., & Martínez‐González, M. Á. (2009) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.129 · Cited by 581 · see citing works
Self-citationMartínez‐González, M. Á., López-Fontana, C. M., Cenarruzabeitia, J. J. V., Sánchez‐Villegas, A., & Martínez, J. A. (2005) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1079/phn2005745 · Cited by 581 · see citing works
Self-citationTrans Fatty Acids and Coronary Heart Disease
Ascherio, A., Katan, M. B., Zock, P. L., Stampfer, M. J., & Willett, W. C. (1999) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199906243402511 · Cited by 569 · see citing works
Dietary Patterns and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women
Fung, T. T., Willett, W. C., Stampfer, M. J., Manson, J. E., & Hu, F. B. (2001) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.161.15.1857 · Cited by 549 · see citing works
Serum and plasma BDNF levels in major depression: A replication study and meta-analyses
Bocchio-Chiavetto, L., Bagnardi, V., Zanardini, R., Molteni, R., Gabriela Nielsen, M., Placentino, A., Giovannini, C., Rillosi, L., Ventriglia, M., Riva, M. A., et al. (2010) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/15622971003611319 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
Mikolajczyk, R. T., El Ansari, W., & Maxwell, A. E. (2009) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/1475-2891-8-31 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
Wu, A., Ying, Z., & Gómez‐Pinilla, F. (2004) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03246.x · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Brouwer, I. A., Wanders, A. J., & Katan, M. B. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009434 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Sanchez-Villegas, A., Schlatter, J., Ortuno, F., Lahortiga, F., Pla, J., Benito, S., & Martinez-Gonzalez, M. A. (2008) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-8-43 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Vaccarino, V., Johnson, B. D., Sheps, D. S., Reís, S. E., Kelsey, S. F., Bittner, V., Rutledge, T., Shaw, L. J., Sopko, G. S., & Merz, C. N. B. (2007) · Journal of the American College of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.069 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Effects of normal meals rich in carbohydrates or proteins on plasma tryptophan and tyrosine ratios
Wurtman, R. J., Wurtman, J. J., Regan, M. M., McDermott, J. M., Tsay, R. H., & Breu, J. J. (2003) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/77.1.128 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Liu, C., Xie, B., Chou, C.-P., Koprowski, C., Zhou, D., Palmer, P., Sun, P., Guo, Q., Duan, L., Sun, X., et al. (2007) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.05.068 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Cohort profile: The ‘Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra’ (SUN) study
Seguí‐Gómez, M., de la Fuente, C., Ruiz, Z. V., de Irala, J., & Martínez‐González, M. Á. (2006) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyl223 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Self-citationDietary glycemic index, dietary glycemic load, blood lipids, and C-reactive protein
Levitan, E. B., Cook, N. R., Stampfer, M. J., Ridker, P. M., Rexrode, K. M., Buring, J. E., Manson, J. E., & Liu, S. (2008) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2007.11.002 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Long chain omega-3 fatty acids intake, fish consumption and mental disorders in the SUN cohort study
Sánchez‐Villegas, A., Henríquez, P., Figueiras, A., Ortuño, F., Lahortiga‐Ramos, F., & Martínez‐González, M. Á. (2007) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-007-0671-x · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Self-citationColangelo, L. A., He, K., Whooley, M. A., Daviglus, M. L., & Liu, K. (2009) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2008.12.008 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Mood and carbohydrate cravings
Christensen, L., & Pettijohn, L. (2001) · Appetite · doi:10.1006/appe.2001.0390 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Detrimental Effects of the Ketogenic Diet on Cognitive Function in Rats
Zhao, Q., Stafstrom, C. E., Fu, D. D., Hu, Y., & Holmes, G. L. (2004) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1203/01.pdr.0000112032.47575.d1 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Reported food choices in older women in relation to body mass index and depressive symptoms
Jeffery, R. W., Linde, J. A., Simon, G. E., Ludman, E. J., Rohde, P., Ichikawa, L., & Finch, E. A. (2008) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2008.08.008 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Association between folate, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12 intake and depression in the SUN cohort study
Sánchez‐Villegas, A., Doreste‐Alonso, J., Schlatter, J., Pla, J., Bes‐Rastrollo, M., & Martínez‐González, M. Á. (2009) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-277x.2008.00931.x · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Self-citationSu, S., Miller, A. H., Snieder, H., Bremner, J. D., Ritchie, J., Maisano, C., Jones, L. R., Murrah, N. V., Goldberg, J. H., & Vaccarino, V. (2008) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e31819082ef · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Bonnet, F., Irving, K., Terra, J., Nony, P., Berthézène, F., & Moulin, P. (2005) · Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1097/01.hjh.0000160219.71350.d2 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Wolfe, A. R., Ogbonna, E. M., Lim, S., Li, Y., & Zhang, J. (2009) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2009.05.002 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Vitamins B12, B6, and Folic Acid for Onset of Depressive Symptoms in Older Men
Ford, A. H., Flicker, L. A., Thomas, J., Norman, P. E., Jamrozik, K. D., & Almeida, O. P. (2008) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v69n0801 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Lavoie, K., Pelletier, R., Arsenault, A., Dupuis, J., & Bacon, S. (2009) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e3181c2d6b8 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Dietary lipids and geriatric depression scale score among elders: The EPIC-Greece cohort
Kyrozis, A., Ψαλτοπούλου, Θ., Stathopoulos, P., Trichopoulos, D., Vassilopoulos, D., & Trichopoulou, A. (2008) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.09.003 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Leptin, adiponectin, leptin to adiponectin ratio and insulin resistance in depressive women.
Zeman, M., Jirák, R., Jáchymová, M., Vecka, M., TVRZICKÁ, E., & Žák, A. (2009) · PubMed · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Trans-fatty acids and nonlipid risk factors
Wallace, S. K., & Mozaffarian, D. (2009) · Current Atherosclerosis Reports · doi:10.1007/s11883-009-0064-0 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Characterization of the Lipid Profile in Dementia and Depression in the Elderly
Dimopoulos, N. P., Piperi, C., Salonicioti, A., Psarra, V., Mitsonis, C., Liappas, I., Lea, R. W., & Kalofoutis, A. (2007) · Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1177/0891988707301867 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Hamer, M., & Chida, Y. (2009) · Atherosclerosis · doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2009.02.032 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Juan, P.-M. F.-S. (2009) · PubMed · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Dietary glycemic index is associated with decreased premenstrual symptoms in young Japanese women
Murakami, K., Sasaki, S., Takahashi, Y., Uenishi, K., Watanabe, T., Kohri, T., Yamasaki, M., Watanabe, R., Baba, K., Shibata, K., et al. (2008) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2008.02.003 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Greenland S & Lash TL (2008) Bias analysis. In Modern Epi- demiology, 3rd ed., pp. 359-380 [
Cited by
Sorted by citations
So depression is an inflammatory disease, but where does the inflammation come from?
Berk, M., Williams, L. J., Jacka, F. N., O’Neil, A., Pasco, J. A., Moylan, S., Allen, N. B., Stuart, A. L., Hayley, A. C., Byrne, M. L., et al. (2013) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-200 · Cited by 1,423 · see citing works
Kelly, J. R., Kennedy, P. J., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., Clarke, G., & Hyland, N. P. (2015) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2015.00392 · Cited by 1,110 · see citing works
Relationship Between Diet and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review
O’Neil, A., Quirk, S. E., Housden, S., Brennan, S. L., Williams, L. J., Pasco, J. A., Berk, M., & Jacka, F. N. (2014) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2014.302110 · Cited by 734 · see citing works
Molendijk, M., Molero, P., Ortuño Sánchez-Pedreño, F., Van der Does, W., & Angel Martínez-González, M. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.09.022 · Cited by 550 · see citing works
Diet and the Microbiota–Gut–Brain Axis: Sowing the Seeds of Good Mental Health
Berding, K., Vlckova, K., Marx, W., Schellekens, H., Stanton, C., Clarke, G., Jacka, F., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2021) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa181 · Cited by 451 · see citing works
Mediterranean dietary pattern and depression: the PREDIMED randomized trial
Sánchez-Villegas, A., Martínez-González, M. A., Estruch, R., Salas-Salvadó, J., Corella, D., Covas, M. I., Arós, F., Romaguera, D., Gómez-Gracia, E., Lapetra, J., et al. (2013) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-208 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
Self-citationPrenatal developmental origins of future psychopathology: mechanisms and pathways
Monk, C., Lugo-Candelas, C., & Trumpff, C. (2019) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095539 · Cited by 388 · see citing works
Dietary recommendations for the prevention of depression
Opie, R. S., Itsiopoulos, C., Parletta, N., Sanchez-Villegas, A., Akbaraly, T. N., Ruusunen, A., & Jacka, F. N. (2017) · Nutritional Neuroscience · doi:10.1179/1476830515y.0000000043 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Gangwisch, J. E., Hale, L., Garcia, L., Malaspina, D., Opler, M. G., Payne, M. E., Rossom, R. C., & Lane, D. (2015) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.103846 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Fermented foods, microbiota, and mental health: ancient practice meets nutritional psychiatry
Selhub, E. M., Logan, A. C., & Bested, A. C. (2014) · Journal of Physiological Anthropology · doi:10.1186/1880-6805-33-2 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
The impact of sugar consumption on stress driven, emotional and addictive behaviors
Jacques, A., Chaaya, N., Beecher, K., Ali, S. A., Belmer, A., & Bartlett, S. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.05.021 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Moving towards a population health approach to the primary prevention of common mental disorders
Jacka, F. N., Mykletun, A., & Berk, M. (2012) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/1741-7015-10-149 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Lopresti, A. L., & Drummond, P. D. (2013) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.05.005 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Adjibade, M., Julia, C., Allès, B., Touvier, M., Lemogne, C., Srour, B., Hercberg, S., Galan, P., Assmann, K. E., & Kesse-Guyot, E. (2019) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-019-1312-y · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Hassan, A. M., Mancano, G., Kashofer, K., Fröhlich, E. E., Matak, A., Mayerhofer, R., Reichmann, F., Olivares, M., Neyrinck, A. M., Delzenne, N. M., et al. (2019) · Nutritional Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/1028415x.2018.1465713 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Linking What We Eat to Our Mood: A Review of Diet, Dietary Antioxidants, and Depression
Huang, Q., Liu, H., Suzuki, K., Ma, S., & Liu, C. (2019) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox8090376 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Bested, A. C., Logan, A. C., & Selhub, E. M. (2013) · Gut Pathogens · doi:10.1186/1757-4749-5-3 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Broad-spectrum micronutrient formulas for the treatment of psychiatric symptoms: a systematic review
Rucklidge, J. J., & Kaplan, B. J. (2013) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1586/ern.12.143 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Targeting the Microbiota in Pharmacology of Psychiatric Disorders
Pascale, A., Marchesi, N., Govoni, S., & Barbieri, A. (2020) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104856 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Riera-Sampol, A., Bennasar-Veny, M., Tauler, P., Nafría, M., Colom, M., & Aguilo, A. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13020585 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
- Authors
- Sánchez-Villegas, A., Toledo, E., de Irala, J., Ruiz-Canela, M., Pla-Vidal, J., & Martínez-González, M. A.
- Venue
- Public Health Nutrition
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2011-08-11
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 424-432
- ISSN
- 1368-9800 (ISSN-L)
- 1475-2727
- OpenAlex
- W2170304486
- Cited by
- 270
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 12.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Public Health Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Acceda (Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI040233, PI07/0312, 06/0045, RD06/0045, PI07/0240, PI042241, PI050976, G03/140, 43/2002, 36/2001, 36/2008)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Consumer Attitudes and Food Labeling
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- fast food consumption, depression risk, depression incidence, diet and mental health, SUN cohort
- MeSH terms
- Antidepressive Agents, Commerce, Depression, Diet, Diet Surveys, Dietary Carbohydrates, Female, Food Handling, Humans, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Risk Factors, Spain, Incidence, Proportional Hazards Models, Fast Foods
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
