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The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians
Abstract
Currently there are no brief, self-administered instruments for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum. In this paper, we report on a new instrument to assess this: the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Individuals score in the range 0-50. Four groups of subjects were assessed: Group 1: 58 adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA); Group 2: 174 randomly selected controls. Group 3: 840 students in Cambridge University; and Group 4: 16 winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad. The adults with AS/HFA had a mean AQ score of 35.8 (SD = 6.5), significantly higher than Group 2 controls (M = 16.4, SD = 6.3). 80% of the adults with AS/HFA scored 32+, versus 2% of controls. Among the controls, men scored slightly but significantly higher than women. No women scored extremely highly (AQ score 34+) whereas 4% of men did so. Twice as many men (40%) as women (21%) scored at intermediate levels (AQ score 20+). Among the AS/HFA group, male and female scores did not differ significantly. The students in Cambridge University did not differ from the randomly selected control group, but scientists (including mathematicians) scored significantly higher than both humanities and social sciences students, confirming an earlier study that autistic conditions are associated with scientific skills. Within the sciences, mathematicians scored highest. This was replicated in Group 4, the Mathematics Olympiad…
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“An additional 57 NTs were studied as part of a replication of our key behavioural result (25 male, 32 female; mean age: 27.1, age range: 19–50) and additionally completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire; a 50-item self-report measure of autistic traits 32,55.”
From Adults with autism overestimate the volatility of the sensory environment (2017) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“The most widely used measure for adults with ASC is the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (AASP), a 60-item self-report measure that finds differences in sensory processing in more than 90% of adults with ASC [17,19].”
From The Sensory Perception Quotient (SPQ): development and validation of a new sensory questionnaire for adults with and without autism (2014) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“While the RAADS-R is usually considered better at picking up female autism traits than traditional screening measures such as the Autism Quotient43”
From Beyond bendy joints: number of variant connective tissue features predicts neurodivergent characteristics in hypermobile individuals with anxiety (2026) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“Autism characteristics were assessed using the Autism Spectrum Quotient-Short (AQ-Short) (Hoekstra et al., 2011), which is an abridged 28-item version of the original 50-item AQ (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), a continuous self-report measure of autism spectrum traits in adults.”
From A mixed methods study of autistic adults' mental health therapy experiences (2023) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“as the AQ was not designed to be diagnostic but rather a dimensional measure of ASD traits.”
From Modeling the cognitive mechanisms linking autism symptoms and anxiety in adults. (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“It has reasonable construct and face validity and good test-retest and interrater reliability [27] and is a useful screening instrument in clinical practice [64].”
In the citing paper
“Because there is an association, at a group level, between mathematical and scientific occupations and autism [80”
From Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness extremes (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
In the citing paper
“The AQ has good internal consistency (α = .82; Austin, 2005) and good test–retest reliability (r = .70; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Both these tests assess day-today behaviour, and can be seen as an index of autistic symptomatology.”
From Executive processes in Asperger syndrome: Patterns of performance in a multiple case series (2006) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin, & Clubley, 2001
In the citing paper
“whereas ASD patient samples typically display peak scores of 35.8±6.5”
From An oxytocin-induced facilitation of neural and emotional responses to social touch correlates inversely with autism traits (2014) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al, 2001
In the citing paper
“To control for potential confounding effects from personality traits or mood states, subjects completed Chinese versions of validated psychometric questionnaires before treatment, including the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988), Autism Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), Empathy Quotient (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright, 2004), and NEO 5-factor inventory (Costa and”
From Oxytocin facilitates approach behavior to positive social stimuli via decreasing anterior insula activity (2018) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
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“…and a diet questionnaire reflecting the last four weeks were administered at baseline and post-treatment (Swanson, 2001; Kessler, 2005; Alliance., C.A.R. CADDRA ADHD ASSESSMENT TOOLKIT (CAAT) FORMS., 2011; Rutter et al., 2003; Baron-Cohen, 2001; Woodbury-Smith, 2005; Bjureberg, 2016; Kautto, 2014).”
InfluentialAutism, Problematic Internet Use and Gaming Disorder: A Systematic Review
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“A preliminary judgment of adult autism tendencies, AQ [44] has a good”
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Cassidy, S., Hannant, P., Tavassoli, T., Allison, C. L., Smith, P. L., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2016) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-016-0112-x · Cited by 79
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“Students also completed the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) as a measure of their autistic symptomatology.”
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“Our results are consistent with the findings of four cross-sectional studies that investigated the association between disordered eating behaviours and autistic traits using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) scale (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Christensen et al., 2019).”
Anhedonia as a transdiagnostic symptom across psychological disorders: a network approach
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“The AQ scale has been used widely within the autism literature and has been shown to have acceptable internal consistency varying from α = 0.63 − 0.78 (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Kurita et al., 2005).”
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“…Shattuck et al., 2011) and in both child and adult samples, friendships have been reported to be of lower quality, result in less enjoyment and be defined in terms of social proximity rather than emotional connectedness (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Baum-inger et al., 2004; Whitehouse et al., 2009).”
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“Recognition for previously seen mental attributes (from the RMET) was measured using a fourpoint confidence score (1¼Definitely did, 2¼ Probably did, 3¼Probably not, 4¼Definitely not).”
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“The five autism-specific items were adapted, with permission, from the already existing and validated AQ (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
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“So far only one study (Yu et al., 2013) reports a correlation between the amount of imitation and the personality feature “openness,” and a further correlation to a test variable from the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ, Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) which can be related to attention-switching.”
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Lever, A. G., Werkle‐Bergner, M., Brandmaier, A. M., Ridderinkhof, K. R., & Geurts, H. M. (2015) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000108 · Cited by 80
“If participants scored above the suggested AQ cutoff for the general population of 32 or higher (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) they were excluded.”
Electroencephalogram Coherence Patterns in Autism: An Updated Review
Schwartz, S., Kessler, R., Gaughan, T., & Buckley, A. W. (2016) · Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2016.10.018 · Cited by 72
Antão, J. Y. F. D. L., de Abreu, L. C., Barbosa, R. T. D. A., Crocetta, T. B., Guarnieri, R., Massetti, T., Antunes, T. P. C., Tonks, J., & Monteiro, C. B. D. M. (2020) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2019.0103 · Cited by 70
Ronald, A., Happé, F., & Plomin, R. (2008) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-008-0689-5 · Cited by 69
Neural activity related to cognitive and emotional empathy in post-traumatic stress disorder
Mazza, M., Tempesta, D., Pino, M. C., Nigri, A., Catalucci, A., Guadagni, V., Gallucci, M., Iaria, G., & Ferrara, M. (2015) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.12.049 · Cited by 69
Pragmatic skills predict online counterfactual comprehension: Evidence from the N400
Kulakova, E., & Nieuwland, M. S. (2016) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-016-0433-4 · Cited by 77
“After the ERP experiment, participants filled out the Communication subscale of the Autism Spectrum Questionnaire (AQ-Comm; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), which as been employed in previous ERP investigations of pragmatic language processing (Nieuwland et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodMöricke, E., Buitelaar, J. K., & Rommelse, N. N. J. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2562-y · Cited by 68
“The selfreported Autism-spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001) and the Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire (BAPQ; Hurley et al. 2007) are often used to obtain a proxy of adult autistic traits.”
MethodResultEndocannabinoid Signaling in Autism
Chakrabarti, B., Persico, A. M., Battista, N., & Maccarrone, M. (2015) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-015-0371-9 · Cited by 75
“neurodevelopmental disorders with early onset in life, sharing autism as a common feature, but produced through distinct processes [40]; 2) the distribution of autistic features as a dimensional continuum in the general population, which fully justifies referring to the Bautism spectrum^ rather than to a categorical d…”
BackgroundInvestigating autism spectrum disorder and autistic traits in early onset eating disorder
Pooni, J., Ninteman, A., Bryant‐Waugh, R., Nicholls, D., & Mandy, W. (2012) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.20980 · Cited by 80
Andrés-García, S. D., Moya‐Albiol, L., & González‐Bono, E. (2012) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.08.003 · Cited by 76
“All scales are ranked by a 4-point Likert scale from ‘definitely agree’ to ‘definitely disagree’ (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright, 2004; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001, 2003).”
Emotion recognition of static and dynamic faces in autism spectrum disorder
Enticott, P. G., Kennedy, H. A., Johnston, P., Rinehart, N., Tonge, B. J., Taffe, J. R., & Fitzgerald, P. B. (2013) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2013.867832 · Cited by 74
Munson, B., Johnson, J. M., & Edwards, J. (2012) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2011/11-0009 · Cited by 71
Kogan, C. S., Turk, J., Hagerman, R. J., & Cornish, K. M. (2007) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.30685 · Cited by 69
Perspective-taking abilities in the balance between autism tendencies and psychosis proneness
Abu-Akel, A. M., Wood, S. J., Hansen, P., & Apperly, I. A. (2015) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.0563 · Cited by 75
Face recognition performance of individuals with Asperger syndrome on the Cambridge face memory test
Hedley, D., Brewer, N., & Young, R. L. (2011) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.214 · Cited by 71
Social orienting in gaze leading: a mechanism for shared attention
Edwards, S. G., Stephenson, L. J., Dalmaso, M., & Bayliss, A. P. (2015) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.1141 · Cited by 69
Martin, A. K., Huang, J., Hunold, A., & Meinzer, M. (2017) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.10.005 · Cited by 67
Laterality Biases to Chimeric Faces in Asperger Syndrome: What is Right About Face-Processing?
Ashwin, C., Wheelwright, S. J., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2005) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-004-1997-3 · Cited by 73
Self-citationLinks between multisensory processing and autism
Donohue, S. E., Darling, E. F., & Mitroff, S. R. (2012) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-012-3223-4 · Cited by 68
Rhodes, G., Jeffery, L., Taylor, L., & Ewing, L. (2013) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.08.016 · Cited by 70
“As expected from Baron-Cohen et al. (2001), men scored higher than women, for AQ_Total, t(238)¼1.90, p¼ .029, one-tailed, Cohen's d¼ .25, and AQ_Social, t(238)¼1.83, p¼ .034, one-tailed, Cohen's d¼ .24 (Table 1).”
InfluentialTaylor, L. J., Maybery, M. T., Grayndler, L., & Whitehouse, A. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1847-2 · Cited by 75
“However, recent evidence from studies of individuals in the general population who have high levels of autistic-like traits (measured using the Autism Spectrum Quotient [AQ]; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001) is discordant with Brian and Bryson’s (1996) claim.”
Hayward, D. A., Voorhies, W. I., Morris, J. L., Capozzi, F., & Ristic, J. (2017) · Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale · doi:10.1037/cep0000117 · Cited by 74
Autistic traits in individuals self-defining as transgender or nonbinary
Stagg, S. D., & Vincent, J. (2019) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2019.06.003 · Cited by 68
“The Autism Spectrum Quotient [24] comprises 50 statements and is designed to screen for ASD.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFace individual identity recognition: a potential endophenotype in autism
Minio-Paluello, I., Porciello, G., Pascual‐Leone, Á., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2020) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-020-00371-0 · Cited by 73
“NT participants did not have a neurological or psychiatric condition, autistic first-degree relatives, or an autism spectrum quotient questionnaire score above the autism cut-off [92].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationSlow update of internal representations impedes synchronization in autism
Vishne, G., Jacoby, N., Malinovitch, T., Epstein, T., Frenkel, O., & Ahissar, M. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-25740-y · Cited by 77
Attention bias to faces in Asperger Syndrome: a pictorial emotion Stroop study
Ashwin, C., Wheelwright, S. J., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2006) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291706007203 · Cited by 72
Self-citationHuntley, Z., Maltezos, S., Williams, C., Morinan, A., Hammon, A., Ball, D., Marshall, E. J., Keaney, F., Young, S., Bolton, P., et al. (2012) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-12-223 · Cited by 72
Adapted to explore: Reinforcement learning in Autistic Spectrum Conditions
Yechiam, E., Arshavsky, O., Shamay‐Tsoory, S., Yaniv, S., & Aharon‐Peretz, J. (2009) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.10.005 · Cited by 68
Prepulse Inhibition of the Acoustic Startle Reflex in High Functioning Autism
Kohl, S., Wolters, C., Gruendler, T. O. J., Vogeley, K. T., Klosterkötter, J., & Kuhn, J. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0092372 · Cited by 69
Embedded Figures Test Performance in the Broader Autism Phenotype: A Meta-analysis
Cribb, S. J., Olaithe, M., Lorenzo, R. D., Dunlop, P. D., & Maybery, M. T. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2832-3 · Cited by 81
“This is a possibility since some previous studies have contained individuals scoring above 32 on the AQ, and most have contained individuals scoring above 26, each of which has been suggested as a cut-off for clinical screening, with the latter being more sensitive and the former more specific (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialCo-Occurrence of ASD and ADHD Traits in an Adult Population
Panagiotidi, M., Overton, P. G., & Stafford, T. (2017) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054717720720 · Cited by 75
“These scales have been used to reliably discriminate between individuals with a diagnosis of ASD and typically developing individuals (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialLugo‐Marín, J., Alviani, M., Chugani, V. M., Magán‐Maganto, M., Villoria, E. D., & Canal‐Bedia, R. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3328-5 · Cited by 69
Metadata
- Authors
- Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- ORCID
- Wheelwright, Sally
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-17
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- OpenAlex
- W2100254283
- Cited by
- 6,450
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 411 · 2025: 486 · 2024: 492 · 2023: 490 · 2022: 448 · 2021: 491 · 2020: 460 · 2019: 419 · 2018: 417 · 2017: 353 · 2016: 306 · 2015: 304 · 2014: 282 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 190
- FWCI
- 7.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Williams Syndrome Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- Autism Spectrum Quotient, autism spectrum disorder, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, self-report questionnaire, autistic traits, sex differences, autism screening, test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Autistic Disorder, Diagnosis, Differential, England, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Students, Reproducibility of Results, Asperger Syndrome
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