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The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians
Abstract
Currently there are no brief, self-administered instruments for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum. In this paper, we report on a new instrument to assess this: the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Individuals score in the range 0-50. Four groups of subjects were assessed: Group 1: 58 adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA); Group 2: 174 randomly selected controls. Group 3: 840 students in Cambridge University; and Group 4: 16 winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad. The adults with AS/HFA had a mean AQ score of 35.8 (SD = 6.5), significantly higher than Group 2 controls (M = 16.4, SD = 6.3). 80% of the adults with AS/HFA scored 32+, versus 2% of controls. Among the controls, men scored slightly but significantly higher than women. No women scored extremely highly (AQ score 34+) whereas 4% of men did so. Twice as many men (40%) as women (21%) scored at intermediate levels (AQ score 20+). Among the AS/HFA group, male and female scores did not differ significantly. The students in Cambridge University did not differ from the randomly selected control group, but scientists (including mathematicians) scored significantly higher than both humanities and social sciences students, confirming an earlier study that autistic conditions are associated with scientific skills. Within the sciences, mathematicians scored highest. This was replicated in Group 4, the Mathematics Olympiad…
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“An additional 57 NTs were studied as part of a replication of our key behavioural result (25 male, 32 female; mean age: 27.1, age range: 19–50) and additionally completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire; a 50-item self-report measure of autistic traits 32,55.”
From Adults with autism overestimate the volatility of the sensory environment (2017) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“The most widely used measure for adults with ASC is the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (AASP), a 60-item self-report measure that finds differences in sensory processing in more than 90% of adults with ASC [17,19].”
From The Sensory Perception Quotient (SPQ): development and validation of a new sensory questionnaire for adults with and without autism (2014) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“While the RAADS-R is usually considered better at picking up female autism traits than traditional screening measures such as the Autism Quotient43”
From Beyond bendy joints: number of variant connective tissue features predicts neurodivergent characteristics in hypermobile individuals with anxiety (2026) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“Autism characteristics were assessed using the Autism Spectrum Quotient-Short (AQ-Short) (Hoekstra et al., 2011), which is an abridged 28-item version of the original 50-item AQ (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), a continuous self-report measure of autism spectrum traits in adults.”
From A mixed methods study of autistic adults' mental health therapy experiences (2023) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“as the AQ was not designed to be diagnostic but rather a dimensional measure of ASD traits.”
From Modeling the cognitive mechanisms linking autism symptoms and anxiety in adults. (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“It has reasonable construct and face validity and good test-retest and interrater reliability [27] and is a useful screening instrument in clinical practice [64].”
In the citing paper
“Because there is an association, at a group level, between mathematical and scientific occupations and autism [80”
From Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness extremes (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
In the citing paper
“The AQ has good internal consistency (α = .82; Austin, 2005) and good test–retest reliability (r = .70; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Both these tests assess day-today behaviour, and can be seen as an index of autistic symptomatology.”
From Executive processes in Asperger syndrome: Patterns of performance in a multiple case series (2006) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin, & Clubley, 2001
In the citing paper
“whereas ASD patient samples typically display peak scores of 35.8±6.5”
From An oxytocin-induced facilitation of neural and emotional responses to social touch correlates inversely with autism traits (2014) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al, 2001
In the citing paper
“To control for potential confounding effects from personality traits or mood states, subjects completed Chinese versions of validated psychometric questionnaires before treatment, including the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988), Autism Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), Empathy Quotient (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright, 2004), and NEO 5-factor inventory (Costa and”
From Oxytocin facilitates approach behavior to positive social stimuli via decreasing anterior insula activity (2018) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
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“Furthermore, both Gantman et al. (2012) and Laugeson et al. (2015) utilized the Autism Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001) and a community diagnosis of ASD to confirm the diagnostic status of their participants, rather than employing a gold standard assessment measure.”
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Self-citationSelf-reported camouflaging behaviours used by autistic adults during everyday social interactions
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How Are Autism and Schizotypy Related? Evidence from a Non-Clinical Population
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“Under this ‘independence’ model, we would expect that autistic features, as measured by scores on Baron-Cohen and colleagues’ AQ [22], should not be strongly positively associated with scores on aspects of schizotypy.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDifferential Psychological Impact of Internet Exposure on Internet Addicts
Romano, M., Osborne, L. A., Truzoli, R., & Reed, P. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055162 · Cited by 113
“Autistic Spectrum Quotient Questionnaire (AQ) [34] measures the level of autistic traits that an individual lacking an ASD diagnosis may possess.”
BackgroundPrecentral gyrus functional connectivity signatures of autism
Nebel, M. B., Eloyan, A., Barber, A. D., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2014) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00080 · Cited by 105
Tunnel Vision: Sharper Gradient of Spatial Attention in Autism
Robertson, C. E., Kravitz, D. J., Freyberg, J., Baron‐Cohen, S., & Baker, C. I. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5120-12.2013 · Cited by 105
“All participants also completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), a selfreport questionnaire which quantifies autistic traits across both ASC and control populations (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEvaluation of the factor structure of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient
Kloosterman, P. H., Keefer, K. V., Kelley, E. A., Summerfeldt, L. J., & Parker, J. D. A. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.10.015 · Cited by 105
Tanabe, H. C., Kosaka, H., Saito, D. N., Koike, T., Hayashi, M. J., Izuma, K., Komeda, H., Ishitobi, M., Omori, M., Munesue, T., et al. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00268 · Cited by 103
“We also measured autistic traits using the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) for all four groups [i.e., ASD, Normal paired with ASD, Normal (3T), Normal (1.5T)].”
MethodInfluentialCai, R. Y., Richdale, A. L., Dissanayake, C., & Uljarević, M. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3318-7 · Cited by 107
“The AQ-Short is a 28-item abbreviated version of the full 50-item AQ screening questionnaire (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001) relating to behaviours associated with ASD.”
Anckarsäter, H. S., Hofvander, B., Billstedt, E., Gillberg, I. C., Gillberg, C., Wentz, E., & Råstam, M. (2011) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291711002881 · Cited by 104
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“To support their diagnoses, the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) was administered.”
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Altered responses to social chemosignals in autism spectrum disorder
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Experimental Pragmatics: The making of a cognitive science
Noveck, I. A. (2018) · HAL · Cited by 105
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Mostert-Kerckhoffs, M. A. L., Staal, W., Houben, R. H., & de Jonge, M. V. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2473-y · Cited by 115
“Both versions have good to excellent test–retest reliability and reasonable to high internal consistency (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001, 2006).”
Sasson, N. J., Dichter, G. S., & Bodfish, J. W. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042457 · Cited by 110
“Autism Quotient (AQ) [58] data were collected to confirm the presence of significant autism symptoms.”
BackgroundMethodDeLong, G. R., Ritch, C. R., & Burch, S. (2002) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1017/s0012162201002717 · Cited by 104
Finding a face in the crowd: Testing the anger superiority effect in Asperger Syndrome
Ashwin, C., Wheelwright, S. J., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2006) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2005.12.008 · Cited by 104
Self-citationDevelopment and validation of the Detail and Flexibility Questionnaire (DFlex) in eating disorders
Roberts, M., Barthel, F. M.-S., López, C., Tchanturia, K., & Treasure, J. L. (2011) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2011.04.001 · Cited by 104
Brosnan, M., Chapman, E., & Ashwin, C. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1897-5 · Cited by 108
“Reiersen et al. report a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.81 for this short version of the SRS and Christ et al. reported this version of the SRS correlates highly (0.75) with the full version of the Autism Quotient (AQ: Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
MethodInfluentialMaternal vitamin D levels and the autism phenotype among offspring
Whitehouse, A. J. O., Holt, B. J., Serralha, M., Holt, P. G., Hart, P. H., & Kusel, M. M. H. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1676-8 · Cited by 100
Intranasal oxytocin enhances intrinsic corticostriatal functional connectivity in women
Bethlehem, R. A. I., Lombardo, M. V., Lai, M.-C., Auyeung, B., Crockford, S. K., Deakin, J., Soubramanian, S., Sule, A., Kundu, P., Voon, V, et al. (2017) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2017.72 · Cited by 96
Self-citationMovement interference in autism-spectrum disorder
Gowen, E., Stanley, J., & Miall, R. C. (2007) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.11.004 · Cited by 103
Is autism spectrum disorder common in schizophrenia?
Unenge Hallerbäck, M., Lugnegård, T., & Gillberg, C. (2012) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.01.016 · Cited by 103
Enhanced olfactory sensitivity in autism spectrum conditions
Ashwin, C., Chapman, E., Howells, J., Rhydderch, D., Walker, I. O., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2014) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/2040-2392-5-53 · Cited by 103
“All participants with ASC further completed the AQ [40], a measure of autistic traits that has been found to be strongly predictive of a clinical diagnosis of AS according to DSM-IV criteria [41].”
MethodSelf-citationKrall, S. C., Volz, L. J., Oberwelland, E., Grefkes, C., Fink, G. R., & Konrad, K. (2015) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23068 · Cited by 106
Interpersonal predictive coding, not action perception, is impaired in autism
von der Lühe, T., Manera, V., Barišic, I., Becchio, C., Vogeley, K. T., & Schilbach, L. (2016) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0373 · Cited by 105
Olivito, G., Clausi, S., Laghi, F., Tedesco, A. M., Baiocco, R., Mastropasqua, C., Molinari, M., Cercignani, M., Bozzali, M., & Leggio, M. G. (2016) · The Cerebellum · doi:10.1007/s12311-016-0795-8 · Cited by 109
“All participants completed Autistic Spectrum Quotient (AQ) [42] (mean/SD 36/7.”
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Effects of Non-invasive Neurostimulation on Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review
Khaleghi, A., Zarafshan, H., Vand, S. R., & Mohammadi, M. R. (2020) · Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience · doi:10.9758/cpn.2020.18.4.527 · Cited by 103
“In these studies, different questionnaires were administered to measure stimulation effects on several dimensions of behavioral symptoms in ASD including Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC; a behavior rating scale for the evaluation of treatment effects on mentally retarded subjects) [65], Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revi…”
What is the Link Between Mental Imagery and Sensory Sensitivity? Insights from Aphantasia
Dance, C., Ward, J., & Simner, J. (2021) · Perception · doi:10.1177/03010066211042186 · Cited by 123
“Participants completed the VVIQ (Marks, 1973), GSQ (sensory sensitivity measure; Robertson and Simmons, 2013), and the AQ (to factor out autistic traits; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) in a random order.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Case of Jeffrey Dahmer: Sexual Serial Homicide from a Neuropsychiatric Developmental Perspective
Silva, J., Ferrari, M., & Leong, G. B. (2002) · Journal of Forensic Sciences · doi:10.1520/jfs15574j · Cited by 101
Kessler, K., & Wang, H. (2012) · Spatial Cognition and Computation · doi:10.1080/13875868.2011.634533 · Cited by 109
“In addition to sex information we had also obtained scores on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ, Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) from our participants and we focussed on those AQ subscales that had been previously reported to reflect social skills and ToM (Hoekstra et al., 2008; Stewart & Austin, 2009).”
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“One way to supplement the ADOS-2’s observational approach is to include self-report measures of a person’s perceived autistic traits, such as the Autism Quotient (AQ) (147), or camouflaging, such as the Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q) (54).”
MethodNeural Mechanisms of Emotion Regulation in Autism Spectrum Disorder
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“…al., 1999; Hardy et al., 2007), and fi nally on the Autism spectrum Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) 5 factors have been identi fi ed, although content of the symptom dimensions somewhat changed with re-analysis and abbreviation of the scale (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Hoekstra et al., 2011).”
InfluentialBabb, C., Brede, J., Jones, C. R. G., Elliott, M., Zanker, C. L., Tchanturia, K., Serpell, L., Mandy, W., & Fox, J. R. E. (2021) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361321991257 · Cited by 105
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“Several researchers conceptualized autism as a set of quantitative traits that might be variously combined and merged in the general population.(76,77) Further research is needed to elucidate the relationship between autistic traits, PD, and the possibility of an increased risk in developing other psychiatric conditio…”
BackgroundInto the Unknown: Aging with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Perkins, E. A., & Berkman, K. A. (2012) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-117.6.478 · Cited by 106
Social and non-social autism symptoms and trait domains are genetically dissociable
Warrier, V., Toro, R., Won, H., Leblond, C. S., Cliquet, F., Delorme, R., De Witte, W., Bralten, J., Chakrabarti, B., Børglum, A. D., et al. (2019) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-019-0558-4 · Cited by 94
Self-citationMoseley, R. L., Gregory, N. J., Smith, P., Allison, C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2019) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-019-0267-3 · Cited by 97
“The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) [55] is a quantitative measure of autistic traits that can be used in the general population as well as in clinical groups.”
MethodSelf-citationPatil, I., Melsbach, J., Hennig‐Fast, K., & Silani, G. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep23637 · Cited by 108
“5 Scale HC ASD Item count χ 2 (1) p SIS 0.”
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“…university students might have artificially skewed informants’ neurotypicality, especially regarding autism-like traits, although there is no a priori reason to believe that British university students show atypical profiles in standardized tests for neurotypicality (see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundGeorgescu, A. L., Koeroglu, S., Hamilton, A. F. D. C., Vogeley, K. T., Falter‐Wagner, C. M., & Tschacher, W. (2020) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-019-0305-1 · Cited by 126
“Furthermore, a series of questionnaires were filled out, in order to better describe the samples: The autism questionnaire (AQ, [51]), the Empathising Quotient (EQ, [56]), the Systemizing Quotient (SQ, [57]).”
BackgroundLee, E. A. L., Black, M. H., Falkmer, M., Tan, T., Sheehy, L., Bölte, S., & Girdler, S. J. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04411-9 · Cited by 111
Personality influences the neural responses to viewing facial expressions of emotion
Calder, A. J., Ewbank, M., & Passamonti, L. (2011) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0362 · Cited by 106
Visual attention in autism families: ‘unaffected’ sibs share atypical frontal activation
Belmonte, M. K., Gomot, M., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02153.x · Cited by 100
Self-citationRoelfsema, M. T., Hoekstra, R. A., Allison, C., Wheelwright, S., Brayne, C., Matthews, F. E., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1302-1 · Cited by 101
Self-citationYao, S., Zhao, W., Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Zhao, Z., Ma, X., Xu, L., Becker, B., & Kendrick, K. M. (2018) · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyy068 · Cited by 97
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Mental health, quality of life and social relations in young adults born with low birth weight
Lund, L., Vik, T., Lydersen, S., Løhaugen, G. C. C., Skranes, J. S., Brubakk, A., & Indredavik, M. S. (2012) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/1477-7525-10-146 · Cited by 103
“A clinical cutoff value is set at a total AQ score ≥ 32 [31].”
BackgroundMethodERP responses differentiate inverted but not upright face processing in adults with ASD
Webb, S. J., Merkle, K. L., Murias, M., Richards, T. L., Aylward, E., & Dawson, G. (2009) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsp002 · Cited by 106
“The AQ was developed to assess autism traits in those with average/normal intelligence (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Woodbury-Smith et al., 2005).”
MethodWalters, S., Loades, M., & Russell, A. (2016) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-016-0072-2 · Cited by 99
“The majority of participants were male (n = 353 or 83.5 %; 70 females), which broadly equates to the ratio of males to females diagnosed with ASD (4:1; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialBerthoz, S., Lalanne, C., Crane, L., & Hill, E. L. (2013) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.05.014 · Cited by 97
“The total sample recruited was substantial and the ASD group was representative of the larger ASD population in terms of both sex ratio and AQ scores (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Baird, et al., 2006; Wheelwright et al., 2010).”
InfluentialThe Context Sensitivity of Visual Size Perception Varies across Cultures
DOHERTY, M. J., Tsuji, H., & Phillips, W. A. (2008) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p5946 · Cited by 103
The Default Mode of Human Brain Function Primes the Intentional Stance
Spunt, R. P., Meyer, M. L., & Lieberman, M. D. (2015) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00785 · Cited by 103
Kung, K. T. F., Spencer, D., Pasterski, V., Neufeld, S., Glover, V. A. S., O’Connor, T. G., Hindmarsh, P. C., Hughes, I. A., Acerini, C. L., & Hines, M. (2016) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12602 · Cited by 101
“(2006) assessed autistic traits, using the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), a self-report measure, in 12-to-45-year-old individuals with CAH (34 females, 26 males) and their unaffected relatives (24 females, 25 males).”
MethodInfluentialMayer, J. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2948-5 · Cited by 110
“In order to assess self-reported levels of autistic traits the Adult Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001) was administered.”
BackgroundMethodTactile hypersensitivity and GABA concentration in the sensorimotor cortex of adults with autism
Sapey‐Triomphe, L., Lamberton, F., Sonié, S., Mattout, J., & Schmitz, C. (2019) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2073 · Cited by 99
The posterior Cerebellum is involved in constructing Social Action Sequences: An fMRI Study
Heleven, E., van Dun, K., & Overwalle, F. V. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-46962-7 · Cited by 105
The Structure and Nature of the Broader Autism Phenotype in a Non-clinical Sample
Wainer, A., Ingersoll, B. R., & Hopwood, C. J. (2011) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-011-9259-0 · Cited by 109
Metacognition, metamemory, and mindreading in high-functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder.
Grainger, C., Williams, D. M., & Lind, S. E. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036531 · Cited by 110
van Steijn, D. J., Richards, J. S., Oerlemans, A. M., de Ruiter, S. W., van Aken, M. A. G., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J. K., & Rommelse, N. N. J. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02556.x · Cited by 102
Uncovering steroidopathy in women with autism: a latent class analysis
Pohl, A., Cassidy, S., Auyeung, B., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2014) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/2040-2392-5-27 · Cited by 97
Self-citationKim, Y.-R., Kim, J.-H., Kim, M. J., & Treasure, J. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088673 · Cited by 97
The Use of “Literary Fiction” to Promote Mentalizing Ability
Pino, M. C., & Mazza, M. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0160254 · Cited by 123
“For the post-reading phase, we used the following measures Empathy Quotient- Emotional sub-scale [46, 38].”
MethodRemembering the past and imagining the future in autism spectrum disorder
Crane, L., Lind, S. E., & Bowler, D. (2012) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.712976 · Cited by 107
“As a further diagnostic check and to ensure that no comparison participants exhibited clinically significant levels of autistic traits, all participants completed the Autism-spectrum Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin, & Clubley, 2001 ), a 50-item self-report ASD screening questionnaire.”
MethodUnfair Lineups Make Witnesses More Likely to Confuse Innocent and Guilty Suspects
Colloff, M. F., Wade, K. A., & Strange, D. M. (2016) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797616655789 · Cited by 95
Gray, K. L. H., Bird, G., & Cook, R. (2017) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.160923 · Cited by 97
Unconscious avoidance of eye contact in autism spectrum disorder
Madipakkam, A. R., Rothkirch, M., Dziobek, I., & Sterzer, P. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13945-5 · Cited by 106
“There was no difference in the number of subjectively unaware (‘highly unsure’) trials, that is, the number of trials used in the analyses between the two groups (t(32) = −0.”
Hessels, R. S., Holleman, G. A., Cornelissen, T. H. W., Hooge, I. T. C., & Kemner, C. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.062917 · Cited by 96
“ASD was assessed using the Autism-spectrum quotient (AQ) developed by Baron-Cohen et al. (2001b), using the Dutch translation by Hoekstra et al. (2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBroader Autism Phenotype in Siblings of Children with ASD—A Review
Pisula, E., & Ziegart-Sadowska, K. (2015) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms160613217 · Cited by 110
“It has been proposed that behavioral and cognitive characteristics of ASD, which include social, communication, and cognitive processes, rigid and persistent interests, and rigid and aloof personality traits, are continuously distributed throughout the general population [8].”
BackgroundResultRosbrook, A., & Whittingham, K. (2009) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2009.10.012 · Cited by 104
Broader Autism Phenotype in Parents of Autistic Children: Reality or Myth?
Scheeren, A. M., & Stauder, J. E. A. (2007) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0389-x · Cited by 96
Schiltz, H. K., McVey, A. J., Dolan, B. K., Haendel, A. D., Stanley, R. E., Arias, A. A., Gordon, N. S., & Hecke, A. V. V. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320967789 · Cited by 98
“The link between greater social difficulties and increased mental health concerns is not unique to autistic youth and adults; neurotypical young adults with higher scores on questionnaires assessing autism features (the Social Responsiveness Scale and Autism Quotient) have demonstrated more anxious and depressive symp…”
BackgroundMethodUnderstanding the Self-identification of Autism in Adults: a Scoping Review
Overton, G. L., Marsà-Sambola, F., Martin, R., & Cavenagh, P. (2023) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-023-00361-x · Cited by 125
Whose loss is it? Human electrophysiological correlates of non-self reward processing
Fukushima, H., & Hiraki, K. (2009) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470910802625009 · Cited by 96
Wang, H., Callaghan, E., Gooding‐Williams, G., McAllister, C. J., & Kessler, K. (2015) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.11.011 · Cited by 100
“All participants were screened for contra-indications (Keel, Smith, & Wassermann, 2001) and had a maximum score of 5 on the “social skills” subscale of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
InfluentialFunctional connectivity-based subtypes of individuals with and without autism spectrum disorder
Easson, A. K., Fatima, Z., & McIntosh, A. R. (2019) · Network Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/netn_a_00067 · Cited by 95
“…the continuum of FC-behavior relationships across participants in different subtypes, future studies should collect measures of subclinical ASD behaviors using scales such as the SRS and Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), which is a brief self-report of ASD traits.”
Fujioka, T., Inohara, K., Okamoto, Y., Masuya, Y., Ishitobi, M., Saito, D. N., Jung, M., Arai, S., Matsumura, Y., Fujisawa, T. X., et al. (2016) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-016-0083-y · Cited by 97
Billeci, L., Calderoni, S., Conti, E., Gesi, C., Carmassi, C., Dell’Osso, L., Cioni, G., Muratori, F., & Guzzetta, A. (2016) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00346 · Cited by 104
Baghdadli, A., Russet, F., & Mottron, L. (2017) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.04.009 · Cited by 109
“%) with clinical diagnosis of ASD (DSM-5) N = 30 non-ASD (mood/anxiety disorder, BP, ADHD, SCH) 18–45 yrs, M = 28.90 yrs (8.29) ‘‘Verbally fluent’’ (no IQ assessment) Not reported ASBQ Horwitz (2016) [57] Total sample: patients attending outpatient mental health center 17–87 yrs Total sample: ‘‘No patients with ID’’ (…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Right Temporoparietal Junction Is Causally Associated with Embodied Perspective-taking
Martin, A. K., Kessler, K., Cooke, S., Huang, J., & Meinzer, M. (2020) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2637-19.2020 · Cited by 95
“The groups were comparable on years of education, Autism Spectrum Quotient (ASQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scores (HADS; Zigmond & Snaith, 1983), and across most baseline cognitive measures (see Table 1).”
BackgroundMethodMichelini, G., Carlisi, C. O., Eaton, N. R., Elison, J. T., Haltigan, J. D., Kotov, R., Krueger, R. F., Latzman, R. D., Li, J. J., Levin-Aspenson, H. F., et al. (2024) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21225 · Cited by 109
“…structure of ADHD includes separate inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity factors 199,406 , whereas the ASD literature has identified between three (communication, social interaction, and restrictive/repetitive behaviors) 407,408 and five (somewhat varying across studies) 199,409-412 factors.”
Hormonal contraception usage is associated with altered memory for an emotional story
Nielsen, S. E., Ertman, N., Lakhani, Y. S., & Cahill, L. F. (2011) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2011.06.013 · Cited by 100
Towgood, K. J., Meuwese, J. D. I., Gilbert, S. J., Turner, M., & Burgess, P. W. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.06.028 · Cited by 102
The role of the left inferior frontal gyrus in social perception: An rTMS study
Keuken, M. C., Hardie, A., Dorn, B. T., Dev, S. I., Paulus, M. P., Jonas, K. J., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., & Pineda, J. A. (2011) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2011.01.073 · Cited by 100
Metadata
- Authors
- Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- ORCID
- Wheelwright, Sally
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-17
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- OpenAlex
- W2100254283
- Cited by
- 6,450
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 411 · 2025: 486 · 2024: 492 · 2023: 490 · 2022: 448 · 2021: 491 · 2020: 460 · 2019: 419 · 2018: 417 · 2017: 353 · 2016: 306 · 2015: 304 · 2014: 282 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 190
- FWCI
- 7.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Williams Syndrome Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- Autism Spectrum Quotient, autism spectrum disorder, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, self-report questionnaire, autistic traits, sex differences, autism screening, test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Autistic Disorder, Diagnosis, Differential, England, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Students, Reproducibility of Results, Asperger Syndrome
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