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The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians
Abstract
Currently there are no brief, self-administered instruments for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum. In this paper, we report on a new instrument to assess this: the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Individuals score in the range 0-50. Four groups of subjects were assessed: Group 1: 58 adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA); Group 2: 174 randomly selected controls. Group 3: 840 students in Cambridge University; and Group 4: 16 winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad. The adults with AS/HFA had a mean AQ score of 35.8 (SD = 6.5), significantly higher than Group 2 controls (M = 16.4, SD = 6.3). 80% of the adults with AS/HFA scored 32+, versus 2% of controls. Among the controls, men scored slightly but significantly higher than women. No women scored extremely highly (AQ score 34+) whereas 4% of men did so. Twice as many men (40%) as women (21%) scored at intermediate levels (AQ score 20+). Among the AS/HFA group, male and female scores did not differ significantly. The students in Cambridge University did not differ from the randomly selected control group, but scientists (including mathematicians) scored significantly higher than both humanities and social sciences students, confirming an earlier study that autistic conditions are associated with scientific skills. Within the sciences, mathematicians scored highest. This was replicated in Group 4, the Mathematics Olympiad…
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“An additional 57 NTs were studied as part of a replication of our key behavioural result (25 male, 32 female; mean age: 27.1, age range: 19–50) and additionally completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire; a 50-item self-report measure of autistic traits 32,55.”
From Adults with autism overestimate the volatility of the sensory environment (2017) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“The most widely used measure for adults with ASC is the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (AASP), a 60-item self-report measure that finds differences in sensory processing in more than 90% of adults with ASC [17,19].”
From The Sensory Perception Quotient (SPQ): development and validation of a new sensory questionnaire for adults with and without autism (2014) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“While the RAADS-R is usually considered better at picking up female autism traits than traditional screening measures such as the Autism Quotient43”
From Beyond bendy joints: number of variant connective tissue features predicts neurodivergent characteristics in hypermobile individuals with anxiety (2026) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“Autism characteristics were assessed using the Autism Spectrum Quotient-Short (AQ-Short) (Hoekstra et al., 2011), which is an abridged 28-item version of the original 50-item AQ (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), a continuous self-report measure of autism spectrum traits in adults.”
From A mixed methods study of autistic adults' mental health therapy experiences (2023) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“as the AQ was not designed to be diagnostic but rather a dimensional measure of ASD traits.”
From Modeling the cognitive mechanisms linking autism symptoms and anxiety in adults. (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“It has reasonable construct and face validity and good test-retest and interrater reliability [27] and is a useful screening instrument in clinical practice [64].”
In the citing paper
“Because there is an association, at a group level, between mathematical and scientific occupations and autism [80”
From Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness extremes (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
In the citing paper
“The AQ has good internal consistency (α = .82; Austin, 2005) and good test–retest reliability (r = .70; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Both these tests assess day-today behaviour, and can be seen as an index of autistic symptomatology.”
From Executive processes in Asperger syndrome: Patterns of performance in a multiple case series (2006) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin, & Clubley, 2001
In the citing paper
“whereas ASD patient samples typically display peak scores of 35.8±6.5”
From An oxytocin-induced facilitation of neural and emotional responses to social touch correlates inversely with autism traits (2014) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al, 2001
In the citing paper
“To control for potential confounding effects from personality traits or mood states, subjects completed Chinese versions of validated psychometric questionnaires before treatment, including the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988), Autism Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), Empathy Quotient (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright, 2004), and NEO 5-factor inventory (Costa and”
From Oxytocin facilitates approach behavior to positive social stimuli via decreasing anterior insula activity (2018) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
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10 years of Bayesian theories of autism: A comprehensive review
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“The Autism Quotient (AQ) [62] was administered to assess traits related to the autism spectrum.”
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“ASDTests (62) is one such application that collects features from the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (63) and Quantitative Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (64) measures.”
BackgroundAtherton, G., Edisbury, E., Piovesan, A., & Cross, L. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05235-x · Cited by 117
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Dimensional schizotypy, autism, and unusual word associations in artists and scientists
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“All participants (both control and ASD subjects) also performed the autism quotient (AQ) test (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001), a measure of the extent of autistic traits in adults.”
MethodMood symptoms and suicidality across the autism spectrum
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“, 2012) Abridged from the 50-item version (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodReduced auditory steady state responses in autism spectrum disorder
Seymour, R. A., Rippon, G., Gooding-Williams, G., Sowman, P. F., & Kessler, K. (2020) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-020-00357-y · Cited by 93
“136 137 Behavioural Assessments 138 The severity of autistic traits was assessed using the Autism Quotient (AQ) [32] and sensory 139 traits using the Glasgow Sensory Questionnaire (GSQ) [33].”
MethodTakara, K., & Kondo, T. (2014) · Annals of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12991-014-0033-z · Cited by 93
“The autistic traits in ASD subjects were quantitatively assessed by using the Japanese version [17] of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) [18], which is a 50-item self-administered questionnaire for adults with normal intelligence.”
MethodDetecting Autism Based on Eye-Tracking Data from Web Searching Tasks
Yaneva, V., Ha, L. A., Eraslan, S., Yeşilada, Y., & Mitkov, R. (2018) · International Web for All Conference (W4A) · doi:10.1145/3192714.3192819 · Cited by 97
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Tan, C. D. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.12.008 · Cited by 122
Missing voices: representations of autism in British newspapers, 1999–2008
Huws, J. C., & Jones, R. S. P. (2010) · British Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1111/j.1468-3156.2010.00624.x · Cited by 113
Oswald, T. M., Beck, J. S., Iosif, A., McCauley, J. B., Gilhooly, L. J., Matter, J. C., & Solomon, M. (2015) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1524 · Cited by 96
Empathy, systemizing, and autistic traits in anorexia nervosa: A pilot study
Hambrook, D. G., Tchanturia, K., Schmidt, U. H., Russell, T. A., & Treasure, J. L. (2008) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466507x272475 · Cited by 91
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“org/journal known to show identical etiology across the diagnostic divide (1), we chose to study healthy participants based on their score on the German translation of the Autism Quotient Spectrum (AQ) questionnaire (12).”
RetractedWhat Works for College Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Kuder, S. J., & Accardo, A. L. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3434-4 · Cited by 109
Chevalier, P., Kompatsiari, K., Ciardo, F., & Wykowska, A. (2019) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01689-4 · Cited by 91
“For instance, Bayliss et al. (2005) reported a negative correlation between gaze-cueing effect magnitude and score on the Autism-Spectrum Quotient questionnaire (BaronCohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin, & Clubley, 2001). Similarly, Ristic and Kingstone (2005) showed that adults diagnosed with high functioning autism…”
BackgroundAutism and autistic traits in those who died by suicide in England
Cassidy, S., Au‐Yeung, S. K., Robertson, A., Cogger-Ward, H., Richards, G., Allison, C. L., Bradley, L., Kenny, R., O’Connor, R. C., Mosse, D., et al. (2022) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2022.21 · Cited by 91
Self-citationSevgi, M., Diaconescu, A. O., Henco, L., Tittgemeyer, M., & Schilbach, L. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.09.032 · Cited by 97
“In light of evidence that suggests that autistic traits are distributed as a continuum across the general population and are known to show identical etiology across the diagnostic divide (1), we chose to study healthy participants based on their score on the German translation of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) ques…”
Bodily synchronization underlying joke telling
Schmidt, R. C., Nie, L., Franco, A., & Richardson, M. J. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00633 · Cited by 91
“In order to measure the participant’s social skill, they then completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (BaronCohen et al., 2001) followed by the Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder, 1974).”
MethodInfluentialRussell-Smith, S. N., Maybery, M. T., & Bayliss, D. M. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.027 · Cited by 91
Validation of Autism Spectrum Quotient Adult Version in an Australian Sample
Broadbent, J., Galic, I., & Stokes, M. A. (2013) · Autism Research and Treatment · doi:10.1155/2013/984205 · Cited by 110
“The AQ was developed by Baron-Cohen and colleagues in 2001 [5].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFreeth, M., Bullock, T., & Milne, E. (2012) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361312445511 · Cited by 100
“In the original article (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), male students scored an average of 18.6 (SD = 6.6); female students scored an average of 16.4 (SD = 6.1).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDerguy, C., M’Baïlara, K., Michel, G., Roux, S., & Bouvard, M. P. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2719-3 · Cited by 107
“It is an adaptation for parents of the Autism Spectrum Quotient developed by Baron-Cohen et al. in a population of patients with Asperger syndrome (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
BackgroundExecutive function in individuals with subthreshold autism traits
Christ, S. E., Kanne, S. M., & Reiersen, A. M. (2010) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0019176 · Cited by 90
Hoffmann, M. W. (2013) · ISRN Neurology · doi:10.1155/2013/892459 · Cited by 102
“(16) Autism Spectrum Quotient [116].”
Damiano, C. R., Aloi, J. M., Treadway, M. T., Bodfish, J. W., & Dichter, G. S. (2012) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/1866-1955-4-13 · Cited by 98
“The AutismSpectrum Queotient (AQ) [38] was used to screen controls for high levels of autism symptomatology, and all control participants scored below the recommended cutoff for ASD on the AQ (≤ 32; M= 14.”
MethodSelective impairment of cognitive empathy for moral judgment in adults with high functioning autism
Gleichgerrcht, E. L., Torralva, T., Rattazzi, A., Marenco, V., Roca, M., & Manes, F. F. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss067 · Cited by 96
“, 2002) and the Autism Spectrum Quotient for adults (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b).”
BackgroundBrugha, T. S., Doos, L., Tempier, A., Einfeld, S., & Howlin, P. (2015) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1466 · Cited by 97
“Assessing the impact of social skills training (Anagnostou et al., 2012), used the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test” (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001a); Hillier et al. (2012) used the Index of Peer Relationships (Hudson, 1993) and Golan and Baron-Cohen used the Cambridge Mind-Reading Face Voice Battery (Golan et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBrief Report: Driving Hazard Perception in Autism
Sheppard, E., Ropar, D., Underwood, G., & van Loon, E. M. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0890-5 · Cited by 89
Autism Traits in Individuals with Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum
Lau, Y. C., Hinkley, L. B. N., Bukshpun, P., Strominger, Z. A., Wakahiro, M. L. J., Baron‐Cohen, S., Allison, C. L., Bonnie Auyeung, B., Jeremy, R. J., Nagarajan, S. S., et al. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1653-2 · Cited by 94
Self-citationThe Big Picture: Storytelling Ability in Adults with Autism Spectrum Conditions
Barnes, J. L., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1388-5 · Cited by 95
Self-citationWilliams, D. M., Bowler, D. M., & Jarrold, C. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579411000794 · Cited by 89
Samson, A. C., Huber, O., & Ruch, W. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1071-2 · Cited by 88
Lind, S. E., Williams, D. M., Raber, J., Peel, A., & Bowler, D. (2013) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034819 · Cited by 99
Clissold, R. L., Shaw-Smith, C. J., Turnpenny, P. D., Bunce, B., Böckenhauer, D., Kerecuk, L., Waller, S. C., Bowman, P., Ford, T. J., Ellard, S., et al. (2016) · Kidney International · doi:10.1016/j.kint.2016.03.027 · Cited by 95
Sellaro, R., de Gelder, B., Finisguerra, A., & Colzato, L. S. (2017) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2017.11.007 · Cited by 88
Ingersoll, B., Meyer, K., & Becker, M. W. (2011) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.170 · Cited by 88
Palmer, C. J., Paton, B., Kirkovski, M., Enticott, P. G., & Hohwy, J. (2015) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.1557 · Cited by 82
Size Perception is Less Context-Sensitive in Males
Phillips, W. A., Chapman, K. L. S., & Berry, P. D. (2004) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p5110 · Cited by 90
Spychalska, M., Kontinen, J., & Werning, M. (2016) · Language Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/23273798.2016.1161806 · Cited by 88
“Consistent with the literature (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), the AQ scores of our participants were dependent on their gender, i.e. men scored significantly higher than women (equal variances not assumed): in total AQ (M = 17.11, SD = 8.07 vs.”
ResultInfluentialModeling the emergence of vowel harmony through iterated learning
Mailhot, F. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199573745.003.0012 · Cited by 87
Automatic Detection of ADHD and ASD from Expressive Behaviour in RGBD Data
Jaiswal, S., Valstar, M., Gillott, A., & Daley, D. (2017) · International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition · doi:10.1109/fg.2017.95 · Cited by 87
“ontrol group do not have any chance of having ADHD or ASD, each subject was asked to complete 2 screening questionnaires: Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) [29]) and Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ10) [30]. The ASRS is a screening measure for ADHD symptoms in adults consisting of 18 items. It is based on DSM-IV items f…”
MethodEvidence for a Broad Autism Phenotype
Groot, K. D., & Strien, J. W. V. (2017) · Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s41252-017-0021-9 · Cited by 102
Correlates of autistic traits among patients with borderline personality disorder
Dell’Osso, L., Cremone, I. M., Carpita, B., Fagiolini, A. M., Massimetti, G., Bossini, L., Vita, A., Barlati, S., Carmassi, C., & Gesi, C. (2018) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.01.002 · Cited by 93
Heritable aspects of biological motion perception and its covariation with autistic traits
Wang, Y., Wang, L., Xu, Q., Liu, D., Chen, L., Troje, N. F., He, S., & Jiang, Y. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1714655115 · Cited by 90
“We first measured the autistic traits of the participants using an adapted version of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) (44) (SI Materials and Methods and Table S2).”
MethodKeating, C. T., Hickman, L., Geelhand, P., Takahashi, T., Leung, J., Schuster, B. A., Rybicki, A. J., Girolamo, T. M., Clin, É., Papastamou, F., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0261774 · Cited by 93
“The autistic traits of all participants will be assessed via the Autism Quotient (AQ; [92]).”
MethodTaylor, E., Livingston, L. A., Clutterbuck, R. A., Callan, M. J., & Shah, P. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221146440 · Cited by 97
“General cognitive ability and autistic traits were measured using the International Cognitive Ability Resource (Condon & Revelle, 2014) and Autism-Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), respectively.”
MethodGroen, Y., Fuermaier, A. B. M., den Heijer, A. E., Tucha, O. M., & Althaus, M. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2448-z · Cited by 88
“The British scoring method with dichotomized answer categories (agree, disagree) was used (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
MethodBest, C. S., Moffat, V. J., Power, M., Owens, D. G. C., & Johnstone, E. C. (2007) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0451-8 · Cited by 98
How Temperament and Personality Contribute to the Maladjustment of Children With Autism
Pauw, S. S. W. D., Mervielde, I., Leeuwen, K. G. V., & Clercq, B. J. D. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1043-6 · Cited by 100
An fMRI investigation of responses to peer rejection in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders
Masten, C. L., Colich, N. L., Rudie, J. D., Bookheimer, S. Y., Eisenberger, N. I., & Dapretto, M. (2011) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2011.01.004 · Cited by 91
Unsupervised data-driven stratification of mentalizing heterogeneity in autism
Lombardo, M. V., Lai, M., Bonnie Auyeung, B., Holt, R., Allison, C. L., Smith, P. L., Chakrabarti, B., Ruigrok, A. N. V., Suckling, J., Bullmore, E. T., et al. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep35333 · Cited by 94
“All participants in both discovery and replication datasets also completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) 68 and the Empathy Quotient (EQ) 69 on the same online platform and before taking the RMET.”
Self-citationVabalas, A., & Freeth, M. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2546-y · Cited by 86
“It is also possible to draw inferences about others’ mental states and their focus of attention by looking at their eyes and following their direction of gaze (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001a; Bayliss and Tipper 2005, 2006).”
InfluentialHealth-related quality of life and its determinants among adults with autism
Khanna, R., Jariwala‐Parikh, K., West-Strum, D. S., & Mahabaleshwarkar, R. (2014) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2013.11.003 · Cited by 90
Roestorf, A., Bowler, D. M., Deserno, M. K., Howlin, P., Klinger, L., McConachie, H., Parr, J. R., Powell, P., Van Heijst, B. F. C., & Geurts, H. M. (2019) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2018.08.007 · Cited by 87
Autistic traits in adults who have attempted suicide
Richards, G., Kenny, R., Griffiths, S., Allison, C. L., Mosse, D., Holt, R., O’Connor, R. C., Cassidy, S., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2019) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-019-0274-4 · Cited by 89
Self-citationEating disorders and autism spectrum: links and risks
Carpita, B., Muti, D., Cremone, I. M., Fagiolini, A. M., & Dell’Osso, L. (2020) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852920002011 · Cited by 102
Rumball, F., Brook, L., Happe, F. G. E., & Karl, A. (2021) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103848 · Cited by 101
Understanding language preference: Autism knowledge, experience of stigma and autism identity
Bury, S., Jellett, R., Haschek, A., Wenzel, M., Hedley, D., & Spoor, J. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221142383 · Cited by 74
“, 2011) is a 28-item, selfreport measuring the extent of autism traits in individuals with an Intelligence Quotient in or above the average range (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodYamasaki, S., Yamasue, H., Abe, O., Suga, M., Yamada, H., Inoue, H., Kuwabara, H., Kawakubo, Y., Yahata, N., Aoki, S., et al. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.012 · Cited by 85
‘Subtypes’ in the Presentation of Autistic Traits in the General Adult Population
Palmer, C. J., Paton, B. K., Enticott, P. G., & Hohwy, J. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2289-1 · Cited by 87
“9) was higher than that reported previously for student nonclinical samples (e.g., M = 17.6, SD = 6.4; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001), but not drastically so, and not approaching that reported previously for clinical samples (e.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDysregulated oscillatory connectivity in the visual system in autism spectrum disorder
Seymour, R. A., Rippon, G., Gooding-Williams, G., Schoffelen, J. M., & Kessler, K. (2019) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awz214 · Cited by 84
Reactions to ostracism in adolescents with autism spectrum conditions
Sebastian, C., Blakemore, S.-J., & Charman, T. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0725-4 · Cited by 86
Uljarević, M., Richdale, A. L., McConachie, H., Hedley, D., Cai, R. Y., Merrick, H., Parr, J. R., & Le Couteur, A. (2018) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1872 · Cited by 85
“Abridged version of the AutismSpectrum Quotient [AQ-Short; Hoekstra et al., 2011] is an abbreviated, 28-item version of the 50-item self-report measure of autistic traits [Baron-Cohen et al., 2001].”
BackgroundBrief Report: Visuospatial Analysis and Self-Rated Autistic-Like Traits
Grinter, E. J., Beek, P. L. V., Maybery, M. T., & Badcock, D. R. (2008) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0658-3 · Cited by 93
Feist, G. J. (2006) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-006-9002-3 · Cited by 86
Sex Differences in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Focus on High Functioning Children and Adolescents
de Giambattista, C., Ventura, P., Trerotoli, P., Margari, F., & Margari, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.539835 · Cited by 107
Klein, M., Witthöft, M., & Jungmann, S. M. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1573263 · Cited by 90
A Scale to Assist the Diagnosis of Autism and Asperger’s Disorder in Adults (RAADS): A Pilot Study
Ritvo, R. A., RITVO, E. R., Guthrie, D., Yuwiler, A., Ritvo, M. J., & Weisbender, L. (2007) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0380-6 · Cited by 92
Predicting interest in and attitudes toward science from personality and need for cognition
Feist, G. J. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.005 · Cited by 86
Autism and schizophrenia in high functioning adults: Behavioral differences and overlap
Spek, A. A., & Wouters, S. (2010) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.01.009 · Cited by 94
Behavioural aspects of cerebellar function in adults with Asperger syndrome
Gowen, E., & Miall, R. C. (2005) · The Cerebellum · doi:10.1080/14734220500355332 · Cited by 94
Early non‐specific modulation of corticospinal excitability during action observation
Lepage, J., Tremblay, S., & Théoret, H. (2010) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07121.x · Cited by 82
Gökçen, E., Frederickson, N., & Petrides, K. V. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2735-3 · Cited by 91
“Psychometric examination of the AQ has revealed good test– retest reliability and moderate-to-high internal consistency (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001c; Cronbach’s alpha was 0.67 in the present study), as well as good discriminative validity (Woodbury-Smith et al. 2005).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRephrasing the madness and creativity debate: What is the nature of the creativity construct?
Glazer, E. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.021 · Cited by 90
Focus projection and prenuclear accents: evidence from lexical processing
Bishop, J. B. (2016) · Language Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/23273798.2016.1246745 · Cited by 85
“Scoring was done using a 4-point Likert scale as in Yu (2010) and elsewhere rather than the binary agree/disagree scoring used in Baron-Cohen et al. (2001).”
MethodSavant syndrome has a distinct psychological profile in autism
Hughes, J. E. A., Ward, J., Gruffydd, E., Baron‐Cohen, S., Smith, P. L., Allison, C. L., & Simner, J. (2018) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-018-0237-1 · Cited by 92
“We found that both autism groups (autistic-savants and autistic-nonsavants) differed from controls on key measures, as predicted from previous literature [30, 43, 46] and theoretical accounts [3].”
InfluentialSelf-citationCharacterising the Sexuality and Sexual Experiences of Autistic Females
Pecora, L. A., Hancock, G. I., Mesibov, G. B., & Stokes, M. A. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04204-9 · Cited by 91
Woodbury‐Smith, M., & Volkmar, F. R. (2008) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-008-0701-0 · Cited by 103
“These include screening instruments (ASQ [12], AQ [8], ASSQ [22]) and diagnostic instruments (ASDS [64], GADS [36], ASDI [35]).”
MethodGloberson, E., Amir, N., Kishon‐Rabin, L., & Golan, O. (2014) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1432 · Cited by 90
Martínez, G., Danset-Alexandre, C., Mam-Lam-Fook, C., Bendjemaa, N., Gaillard, R., Garel, P., Dziobek, I., Amado, I., & Krebs, M. (2017) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2017.01.012 · Cited by 104
“…were evaluated with the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS-24) (Ventura et al., 1993), with the Thought Language and Communication Scale (TLC) (Andreasen, 1986) for disorganization symptoms and completed the self-administered questionnaire Autism Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b).”
Neurobehavioral Abnormalities in First-Degree Relatives of Individuals With Autism
Mosconi, M. W., Kay, M., D’Cruz, A.-M., Guter, S., Kapur, K., Macmillan, C., Stanford, L. D., & Sweeney, J. A. (2010) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.87 · Cited by 84
Whole-brain functional hypoconnectivity as an endophenotype of autism in adolescents
Moseley, R. L., Ypma, R. J. F., Holt, R., Floris, D. L., Chura, L. R., Spencer, M. D., Baron‐Cohen, S., Suckling, J., Bullmore, E. T., & Rubinov, M. (2015) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2015.07.015 · Cited by 85
“Siblings and controls scored significantly lower in number of autistic traits as measured on the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b), and on the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) (Rutter et al., 2003), they scored below the cut-off that differentiates them…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationKanne, S. M., Wang, J., & Christ, S. E. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1308-8 · Cited by 83
“Four candidate measures that have been used widely are the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ; Berument et al. 1999), the Broader Autism Phenotype Questionnaire (BAPQ; Hurley et al. 2007), the Social Reciprocity Scale (SRS; Constantino et al. 2000), and the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al. 2001 ).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialNishiyama, T., Suzuki, M., Adachi, K., Sumi, S., Okada, K., Kishino, H., Sakai, S., Kamio, Y., Kojima, M., Suzuki, S., et al. (2013) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-013-2020-7 · Cited by 83
Processing of Written Irony in Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Eye‐Movement Study
Au‐Yeung, S. K., Kaakinen, J. K., Liversedge, S. P., & Benson, V. (2015) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1490 · Cited by 84
Romantic Intimacy in Autism: A Qualitative Analysis
Sala, G., Hooley, M., & Stokes, M. A. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04377-8 · Cited by 84
Gender identity, sexual orientation and adverse sexual experiences in autistic females
Pecora, L. A., Hancock, G. I., Hooley, M., Demmer, D. H., Attwood, T., Mesibov, G. B., & Stokes, M. A. (2020) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-020-00363-0 · Cited by 97
“Of these, 161 were individuals without autism, whereas the remaining 134 self-reported a formal diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD [49];), confirmed by an Autism Quotient (AQ [50];) score”
MethodResultInfluentialCassidy, S., Bradley, L., Cogger-Ward, H., & Rodgers, J. (2021) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-021-00449-3 · Cited by 84
“The AQ-short [37] is a 28-item subset of the full 50 item Autism Spectrum Quotient [38].”
BackgroundWang, J., Ma, B., Wang, J., Zhang, Z., & Chen, O. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.963102 · Cited by 90
The Childhood Autism Spectrum Test (CAST): sex differences
Williams, J. G., Allison, C., Scott, F. J., Bolton, P. F., Baron-Cohen, S., Matthews, F. E., & Brayne, C. (2008) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0558-6 · Cited by 84
Self-citationWhite, S. W., Bray, B. C., & Ollendick, T. H. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1325-7 · Cited by 84
Georgescu, A. L., Kuzmanovic, B., Schilbach, L., Tepest, R., Kulbida, R., Bente, G., & Vogeley, K. T. (2013) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2013.08.014 · Cited by 83
“In order to avoid clinically significant autistic traits in the control sample, control participants were included only if scoring less than 22 on the Autism Quotient (AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001b).”
Theory of mind and central coherence in adults with high-functioning autism or Asperger syndrome
Beaumont, R. B., & Newcombe, P. A. (2006) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361306064416 · Cited by 89
Metadata
- Authors
- Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- ORCID
- Wheelwright, Sally
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-17
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- OpenAlex
- W2100254283
- Cited by
- 6,450
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 411 · 2025: 486 · 2024: 492 · 2023: 490 · 2022: 448 · 2021: 491 · 2020: 460 · 2019: 419 · 2018: 417 · 2017: 353 · 2016: 306 · 2015: 304 · 2014: 282 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 190
- FWCI
- 7.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Williams Syndrome Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- Autism Spectrum Quotient, autism spectrum disorder, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, self-report questionnaire, autistic traits, sex differences, autism screening, test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Autistic Disorder, Diagnosis, Differential, England, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Students, Reproducibility of Results, Asperger Syndrome
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