The DOI matches its Crossref record; 29 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians
Abstract
Currently there are no brief, self-administered instruments for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum. In this paper, we report on a new instrument to assess this: the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Individuals score in the range 0-50. Four groups of subjects were assessed: Group 1: 58 adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA); Group 2: 174 randomly selected controls. Group 3: 840 students in Cambridge University; and Group 4: 16 winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad. The adults with AS/HFA had a mean AQ score of 35.8 (SD = 6.5), significantly higher than Group 2 controls (M = 16.4, SD = 6.3). 80% of the adults with AS/HFA scored 32+, versus 2% of controls. Among the controls, men scored slightly but significantly higher than women. No women scored extremely highly (AQ score 34+) whereas 4% of men did so. Twice as many men (40%) as women (21%) scored at intermediate levels (AQ score 20+). Among the AS/HFA group, male and female scores did not differ significantly. The students in Cambridge University did not differ from the randomly selected control group, but scientists (including mathematicians) scored significantly higher than both humanities and social sciences students, confirming an earlier study that autistic conditions are associated with scientific skills. Within the sciences, mathematicians scored highest. This was replicated in Group 4, the Mathematics Olympiad…
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In the citing paper
“An additional 57 NTs were studied as part of a replication of our key behavioural result (25 male, 32 female; mean age: 27.1, age range: 19–50) and additionally completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire; a 50-item self-report measure of autistic traits 32,55.”
From Adults with autism overestimate the volatility of the sensory environment (2017) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“The most widely used measure for adults with ASC is the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (AASP), a 60-item self-report measure that finds differences in sensory processing in more than 90% of adults with ASC [17,19].”
From The Sensory Perception Quotient (SPQ): development and validation of a new sensory questionnaire for adults with and without autism (2014) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“While the RAADS-R is usually considered better at picking up female autism traits than traditional screening measures such as the Autism Quotient43”
From Beyond bendy joints: number of variant connective tissue features predicts neurodivergent characteristics in hypermobile individuals with anxiety (2026) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“Autism characteristics were assessed using the Autism Spectrum Quotient-Short (AQ-Short) (Hoekstra et al., 2011), which is an abridged 28-item version of the original 50-item AQ (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), a continuous self-report measure of autism spectrum traits in adults.”
From A mixed methods study of autistic adults' mental health therapy experiences (2023) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“as the AQ was not designed to be diagnostic but rather a dimensional measure of ASD traits.”
From Modeling the cognitive mechanisms linking autism symptoms and anxiety in adults. (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“It has reasonable construct and face validity and good test-retest and interrater reliability [27] and is a useful screening instrument in clinical practice [64].”
In the citing paper
“Because there is an association, at a group level, between mathematical and scientific occupations and autism [80”
From Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness extremes (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
In the citing paper
“The AQ has good internal consistency (α = .82; Austin, 2005) and good test–retest reliability (r = .70; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Both these tests assess day-today behaviour, and can be seen as an index of autistic symptomatology.”
From Executive processes in Asperger syndrome: Patterns of performance in a multiple case series (2006) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin, & Clubley, 2001
In the citing paper
“whereas ASD patient samples typically display peak scores of 35.8±6.5”
From An oxytocin-induced facilitation of neural and emotional responses to social touch correlates inversely with autism traits (2014) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al, 2001
In the citing paper
“To control for potential confounding effects from personality traits or mood states, subjects completed Chinese versions of validated psychometric questionnaires before treatment, including the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988), Autism Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), Empathy Quotient (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright, 2004), and NEO 5-factor inventory (Costa and”
From Oxytocin facilitates approach behavior to positive social stimuli via decreasing anterior insula activity (2018) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
Citations
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“Items were selected from the domains in the “triad” of autistic symptoms (APA, 1994; Rutter, 1978; Wing & Gould, 1979 ), and from demonstrated areas of cognitive abnormality in autism.”
MethodAutism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin study
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Self-citationAsperger’s syndrome: a clinical account
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Flagged first, then by citations
5 of the 34 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.).Washington DC: Author.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,101–1,128 of 1,128
Predictive action perception from explicit intention information in autism
Hudson, M., Nicholson, T., Kharko, A., McKenzie, R., & Bach, P. (2021) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-021-01941-w · Cited by 19
Investigating how Explicit Contextual Cues Affect Predictive Sensorimotor Control in Autistic Adults
Arthur, T., Brosnan, M., Harris, D., Buckingham, G., Wilson, M., Williams, G., & Vine, S. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05718-5 · Cited by 20
“All individuals in the ASD group scored above the clinical ‘screening cut-off’ of 26 on the 50-item Autistic Quotient (AQ; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), with clinical characteristics proving highly consistent with previously reported values (Table 1; for normative data, see Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Woodbury-Smith et al.…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialReduced Context Updating but Intact Visual Priors in Autism
Randeniya, R., Vilares, I., Mattingley, J. B., & Garrido, M. I. (2021) · Computational Psychiatry · doi:10.5334/cpsy.69 · Cited by 17
Groot, I. Z., Venhuizen, A.-S. S. M., Bachrach, N., Walhout, S., de Moor, B., Nikkels, K., Dalmeijer, S., Maarschalkerweerd, M., van Aalderen, J. R., de Lange, H., et al. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04248-9 · Cited by 18
“Autism Characteristics The Dutch Autism-Spectrum Quotient-10 (AQ-10 [55]; is used to measure autism characteristics.”
MethodSoares, L. S., Alves, A. L. C., Costa, D. D. S., Malloy-Diniz, L. F., Paula, J. J. D., Romano-Silva, M. A., & Miranda, D. M. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.593150 · Cited by 17
Recognising, supporting and understanding Autistic adults in general practice settings
Bradshaw, P., Pickett, C., van Driel, M. L., Brooker, K., & Urbanowicz, A. (2021) · Australian Journal of General Practice · doi:10.31128/ajgp-11-20-5722 · Cited by 16
Auditory Deficits in Audiovisual Speech Perception in Adult Asperger’s Syndrome: fMRI Study
Tietze, F.-A., Hundertmark, L., Roy, M., Zerr, M., Sinke, C., Wiswede, D., Walter, M., Münte, T. F., & Szycik, G. R. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02286 · Cited by 16
WHITEHOUSE, A. J. O., MAYBERY, M., WRAY, J. A., & HICKEY, M. (2011) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.03915.x · Cited by 15
Temporal binding of social events less pronounced in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Vogel, D. H. V., Jording, M., Esser, C., Conrad, A., Weiss, P. H., & Vogeley, K. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-19309-y · Cited by 15
Watanabe, T., Kondo, M., Sakai, M., Takabatake, S., Furukawa, T., & Akechi, T. (2021) · Advances in Medical Education and Practice · doi:10.2147/amep.s334155 · Cited by 15
Autism epidemiology: distinguishing between identification and prevalence
Tromans, S., & Brugha, T. (2022) · Progress in Neurology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/pnp.732 · Cited by 14
Effect of Social Stimuli on Postural Responses in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Ghanouni, P., Memari, A.-H., Gharibzadeh, S., Eghlidi, J., & Moshayedi, P. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3032-5 · Cited by 14
Cognitive processes in autism: Repetitive thinking in autistic versus non-autistic adults
Cooper, K., Russell, A., Calley, S., Chen, H., Kramer, J., & Verplanken, B. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613211034380 · Cited by 14
High spatial frequency filtered primes hastens happy faces categorization in autistic adults
Lacroix, A., Nalborczyk, L., Dutheil, F., Kovarski, K., Chokron, S., Garrido, M., Gomot, M., & Mermillod, M. (2021) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2021.105811 · Cited by 12
Sex modulation of faces prediction error in the autistic brain
Lacroix, A., Harquel, S., Mermillod, M., Garrido, M., Barbosa, L., Vercueil, L., Aleysson, D., Dutheil, F., Kovarski, K., & Gomot, M. (2024) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-024-05807-4 · Cited by 12
Olivito, G., Lupo, M., Siciliano, L., Gragnani, A., Saettoni, M., Pancheri, C., Panfili, M., Pignatelli, F., Delle Chiaie, R., & Leggio, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2022.971244 · Cited by 12
Richards, K. L., Karvelis, P., Lawrie, S. M., & Seriès, P. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243100 · Cited by 12
“1 (ASRS; [55]) and Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ; [56]).”
Association between early androgens and autistic traits: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Coscini, N., Williams, K., Chew, D., Pang, K. C., O’Connell, M. A., & May, T. (2021) · Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101789 · Cited by 10
A Novel Machine Learning Based Framework for Detection of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Sharif, H., & Khan, R. A. (2022) · Applied Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1080/08839514.2021.2004655 · Cited by 10
“ed range of interestsin specific tasks and activities (Jaliaawala and Khan 2019). Based on these behavioral lineaments, ASD is further divided into groups, which are: 1. High Functioning Autism (HFA) (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001): HFA is a term applied to people with autistic disorder, who are deemed to be cognitively “hig…”
BackgroundSapey-Triomphe, L.-A., Sanchez, G., Hénaff, M.-A., Sonié, S., Schmitz, C., & Mattout, J. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00207-5 · Cited by 11
Inner speech moderates the relationship between autism spectrum traits and emotion regulation
Albein-Urios, N., Youssef, G., Klas, A., & Enticott, P. G. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04750-7 · Cited by 8
Kawamura, Y., Liu, X., Shimada, T., Otowa, T., Kakiuchi, C., Akiyama, T., Umekage, T., & Sasaki, T. (2011) · Asia-Pacific Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1758-5872.2011.00132.x · Cited by 7
Associations between Autistic-like Traits and Imagery Ability
Hatakeyama, T. (2024) · Vision · doi:10.3390/vision8010013 · Cited by 7
“Investigating the relationship between the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) [8] and the AASP, Mayer [9] discovered that higher levels of autistic traits are associated with higher levels of sensory function atypicality in both neurotypical and ASD adults.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialImproving autistic experiences in the workplace: key factors and actionable steps
Nishith, S., O’Brien, A. M., Li, C., Bungert, L., Oddis, K., Riddle, J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-025-07036-y · Cited by 9
Mechanisms of Mindfulness in Those with Higher and Lower Levels of Autism Traits
Reed, P. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-0964-6 · Cited by 3
Camouflaging Behaviours Used by Autistic Adults During Everyday Social Interactions
Cook, J., Crane, L., Hull, L., Bourne, L., & Mandy, W. (2020) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-96362/v1 · Cited by 5
Sánchez-Cueva, S., Alonso-Esteban, Y., & Alcantud-Marín, F. (2021) · European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe11040111 · Cited by 2
Quadt, L., Csecs, J., Savage, G., Davies, G., Ramanuj, P., Hakim, A. J., Grey, N., Critchley, H. D., & Eccles, J. A. (2026) · npj Mental Health Research · doi:10.1038/s44184-026-00214-5
“While theRAADS-Risusuallyconsideredbetteratpicking up femaleautismtraits than traditional screening measures such as the Autism Quotient 43 , a recent study suggests that the RAADS-R may have limited predictive validity for receiving an autism diagnosis 44 .”
Metadata
- Authors
- Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- ORCID
- Wheelwright, Sally
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-17
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- OpenAlex
- W2100254283
- Cited by
- 6,450
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 411 · 2025: 486 · 2024: 492 · 2023: 490 · 2022: 448 · 2021: 491 · 2020: 460 · 2019: 419 · 2018: 417 · 2017: 353 · 2016: 306 · 2015: 304 · 2014: 282 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 190
- FWCI
- 7.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Williams Syndrome Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- Autism Spectrum Quotient, autism spectrum disorder, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, self-report questionnaire, autistic traits, sex differences, autism screening, test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Autistic Disorder, Diagnosis, Differential, England, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Students, Reproducibility of Results, Asperger Syndrome
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