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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
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Self-citationRealizing That You Don't Understand: A Preliminary Investigation
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Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
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“They do little monitoring of their memory and other cognitive processes ( Flavell 1979 ).”
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Yang, Y., & Bliss, L. B. (2014) · Educational Research and Evaluation · doi:10.1080/13803611.2014.971817 · Cited by 16
“In order to explain how metacognition functions, theorists have divided metacognition into metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation/control (Baker & Brown, 1984; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundAntonietti, A., Colombo, B., & Lozotsev, Y. (2007) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.10.004 · Cited by 14
Exploring the Metacognitive Orientation of the Science Classrooms in a Thai Context
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“Metacognition, or “thinking about one’s thinking,” is a strategic process of monitoring whether or not one’s cognitive goals have been achieved (flavell, 1979; livingston, 2003).”
BackgroundFolk Epistemology as Normative Social Cognition
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“’’ More precisely, these both refer to the so-called metacognitive knowledge, which corresponds to one’s knowledge about his/ her own cognitive functioning and that of others (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundApplications of Cognitive Transformation Theory
Wiltshire, T. J., Neville, K., Lauth, M., Rinkinen, C., & Ramírez, L. F. R. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making · doi:10.1177/1555343414532470 · Cited by 16
“It has long been thought that there are inherent benefits of metacognitive and self-regulatory processes (e.g., Flavell, 1979), and indeed, recent metaanalyses have shown that self-regulated learning strategies, and in particular, those that would be considered metacognitive, contribute to better…”
BackgroundMethodZhao, N., Valcke, M., Desoete, A., Zhu, C., Sang, G., & Verhaeghe, J.-P. (2012) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2012.696210 · Cited by 14
“Metacognitive knowledge includes information about tasks, strategies, and goals (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundDifferent Components of Metacognition and their Relationship to Psychotic-Like Experiences
Reeder, C., Rexhepi‐Johansson, T., & Wykes, T. (2009) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465809990403 · Cited by 14
“Metacognition refers to “thinking about thinking” (Flavell, 1979) and has frequently been divided into two subcomponents: knowledge about cognition and regulation of cognition (Schraw and Dennison, 1994).”
BackgroundCartier, S. C. (2007) · Revue des sciences de l éducation · doi:10.7202/014573ar · Cited by 15
“Les connaissances de l’élève, essentielles à l’apprentissage par la lecture, portent sur différents aspects (Flavell, 1979 ; Wittrock, 1991) dont les sujets à traiter, l’activité à réaliser, les stratégies à mettre en œuvre et le texte à lire.”
Learning to Learn—Concepts in a First Power Engineering Course
Chowdhury, B. (2004) · IEEE Transactions on Power Systems · doi:10.1109/tpwrs.2003.821000 · Cited by 14
The Role of Human Operators' Suspicion in the Detection of Cyber Attacks
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Seeking Common Ground: Guiding Assumptions for Writing Courses
David, D. L., Gordon, B., & Pollard, R. (1995) · College Composition and Communication · doi:10.2307/358326 · Cited by 14
Comparing apples and oranges: toward a typology for assessing e-learning effectiveness
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Correlates of metacognitive control in 10-year old children and adults
Tsalas, N. R. H., Sodian, B., & Paulus, M. (2017) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-016-9168-4 · Cited by 17
Sala, G., Gobet, F. R., Trinchero, R., & Ventura, S. (2016) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 15
A metacognitive model of the feeling of agency over bodily actions.
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Validating a Fidelity Scale to Understand Intervention Effects in Classroom-Based Studies
Buckley, P. R., Moore, B., Boardman, A. G., Arya, D. J., & Maul, A. (2017) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831217726522 · Cited by 14
“The CSR model was developed based on the extant literature in the domains of cognitive psychology (Flavell, 1979; Palincsar & Brown, 1984), evidence-based reading comprehension practices (Scammacca et al., 2007), and evidence-based pedagogical practices such as cooperative learning (e.g., Johnson &…”
MethodHonan, C. A., Skromanis, S., Johnson, E. G., & Palmer, M. A. (2017) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000404 · Cited by 14
“Metacognitive functioning is a fundamental component of human cognition, which involves monitoring, evaluation, and regulation of one’s own thinking, memory, and decisions (Flavell, 1979; Hart, 1965).”
BackgroundChildren’s creativity as a manifestation and predictor of their wisdom
Płóciennik, E. (2018) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2018.02.009 · Cited by 14
Metacognitive interventions in text production and working memory in students with ADHD
Pisacco, N. M. T., Sperafico, Y. L. S., Enricone, J. R. B., Guimarães, L. S. P., Rohde, L. A., & Dorneles, B. V. (2018) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1186/s41155-017-0081-9 · Cited by 17
“…above, demonstrate the metacognitive focus of this intervention model, in accordance with the four aspects of metacognition initially proposed by Flavell (1979): metacognitive knowledge (comprises of sensitivity to the self, to the task and to the strategy and the knowledge of those three…”
MethodBright, M., Parker, S., French, P., Morrison, A. P., Tully, S., Stewart, S., & Adrian Wells, A. (2018) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2301 · Cited by 14
“Metacognition is loosely defined as cognition about cognition or thinking about thinking (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundGrohs, J., Knight, D. B., Young, G. D., et al. (2018) · International Journal of Education in Mathematics Science and Technology · doi:10.18404/ijemst.428175 · Cited by 14
“…such as “self-regulation” or “metacognition” within the engineering education literature have varied (Lawanto, 2010), including a range of phenomena such as awareness of knowledge, thinking, learning, and organizing cognitive resources (e.g., Cuasay, 1992; Flavell, 1979; Marzano et al., 1988).”
BackgroundHussien, A. M. (2018) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.12973/iji.2018.11429a · Cited by 14
“Language is not only a process but also it involves reflection or meta-cognitive processes (Flavel, 1979; Garner, 1987).”
BackgroundAuthentic Assessment Design in Accounting Courses: A Literature Review
Nkhoma, C., Nkhoma, M. Z., & Tu, K. G. C. K. L. (2018) · Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology · doi:10.28945/4036 · Cited by 15
“According to Flavell (1979), the ability to control, understand, and manipulate the mental process is called meta-cognitive skill.”
BackgroundConversation analysis and language alternation
(2018) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.295 · Cited by 19
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Exploring Online Graduate Students' Responses to Online Self-Regulation Training.
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“There are three facets to metacognition : metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experiences and metacognitive skills (Desoete & Ozsoy, 2009; Efklides, 2001, 2008; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundFaija, C. L., Reeves, D., Heal, C., & Wells, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01064 · Cited by 15
“Metacognition is defined as the knowledge (beliefs) and cognitive processes involved in regulation and appraisal of thinking (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundSağırlı, M. Ö., BAŞ, F. İ., & Bekdemir, M. (2020) · Bayburt Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.35675/befdergi.464806 · Cited by 14
“Keywords: Academic achievement, metacognition, metacognitive awareness Giriş Üstbiliş ilk olarak Flavell (1979) tarafından “bireylerin bilişsel süreçleri hakkındaki bilgileri ve bu bilişsel süreçleri yönetmek için bu bilgiyi kullanmaları” olarak tanımlanmıştır.”
BackgroundAl-Qahtani, A. A. (2020) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v13n9p50 · Cited by 14
“In literature, metacognition was noticeably recognized and developed by (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundInvestigating Student Reflection during Game-Based Learning in Middle Grades Science
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“, monitoring one’s understanding during learning activities) [7, 28].”
BackgroundDeveloping a Hybrid Four-Prong Approach to Anatomical Education During the COVID-19 Pandemic
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“Flavell demonstrated that metacognitive knowledge is composed of three categories: person variables, task variables, and strategy variables [30].”
BackgroundInteracción conceptual entre el pensamiento crítico y metacognición
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“Factors that affect global health and cultural competencies include metacognition, which is the ability to understand and manipulate one’s cognitive processes [16]; global health and cultural nursing confidence; and other aspects such as overseas volunteer experience, foreign language skills, and foreign friends that…”
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“Meta-cognition simply refers to knowledge about own cognition (Flavell, 1979).”
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“Metacognition has been broadly defined as ‘knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena’ (Flavell, 1979, p. 906).”
BackgroundCognitive Conflicts and Resolutions in Online Text Revisions: Three Profiles
Yang, Y. (2010) · Cited by 13
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“Metacognitive agility is the ability to actively control the learning process [ 2 ] such as possessing the ability to reflect and analyze the way oneself or others think, discern when different cognitive strategies are needed, and employ those strategies to enhance one’s learning and performance [1].”
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Efklides, A., Δημητρίου, Α., & Metallidou, Y. (1994) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)62756-9 · Cited by 14
Children's responses to interpersonal obstacles as a predictor of social competence
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“While rudiments of these abilities are present from very early in life, the course of development of each ability and its relative salience for interpersonal adjustment are factors that are only beginning to be studied ( Flavell, 1979; Rubin and Krasnor, 1983; Spivack et al., 1976).”
BackgroundThe role of mutual knowledge in the development of perspective taking
Newman, D. (1986) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/0273-2297(86)90008-0 · Cited by 14
“Conscious planning or what is often called “metacognitive” activity (Brown, Bransford, & Ferrara, 1984; Flavell, 1979) requires, in terms of the current discussion, stepping back from the shared in”
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Cooperative Learning: A Case Study of a University Course in Systems Analysis
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Off-line metacognition in children with mathematics learning disabilities
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“Flavell (1987) promotes the idea that as children develop a sense of self and self-efficacy, they are more likely to feel they are capable of taking control of and influencing their own learning.”
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Cultural influence on metacognition: comparison across three societies
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“Metacognition has two important components: metacognitive control and metacognitive monitoring (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998).”
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Zhang, Y., Tian, H., & Lu, J. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03404-6 · Cited by 18
“For example, students with higher scores in innovative thinking solve problems faster than those with lower scores [27].”
Lukešová, A., & Jennings, P. (2026) · Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.1080/17501229.2025.2612532 · Cited by 16
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Cognitive and Social Cognitive Self-assessment in Autistic Adults
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“…Introspective accuracy · Self-assessment · Metacognition · Neurocognition · Social cognition · Social functioning Metacognition is broadly defined as “thinking about thinking,” or the ability to understand and control one’s cognitive processes (Flavell 1979; Schraw 2013; Schraw and Dennison 1994).”
BackgroundShahbari, J. A., Daher, W. M., Baya’a, N., et al. (2020) · Symmetry · doi:10.3390/sym12091569 · Cited by 13
“Meta-cognitive knowledge is declarative knowledge about the interaction between human characteristics, mission, and strategy [19].”
BackgroundInfluentialMerchán-Baeza, J. A., Rodríguez‐Bailón, M., Ricchetti, G., Navarro-Egido, A., & Funes, M. J. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037542 · Cited by 13
Developing Young Learners’ Metacognitive Awareness for Speaking
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“Metacognition, postulated by Flavell (1979), concerns the knowledge and control of a person’s cognitive processes.”
BackgroundThinking About Behavior: Perspective on Meta-Behavior in Education
Amran, M. S., Zain, S. M., Jamaludin, K. A., & Surat, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.727116 · Cited by 14
“Thus, the greater the meta-behavioral abilities, the more effective the behaviors manifested (Flavell, 1979; Abdullah and Rahman, 2018).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMetacognitive judgements and abilities in patients with affective disorders
Drueke, B., Gauggel, S., Weise, L., Forkmann, T., & Mainz, V. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02838-0 · Cited by 13
“If metacognition is understood as the ability to make more or less reliable and valid judgements concerning one’s own mental experience and behavior (Flavell, 1979) the metacognitive judgements should promote accurate selfassessments.”
BackgroundWelter, V. D. E., Becker, L. B., & Großschedl, J. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12050325 · Cited by 18
Şen, Ş. (2022) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-022-00651-8 · Cited by 20
“Metacognition plays an important role in problemsolving because metacognition is “higher-order cognition about cognition” (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundTöbelmann, L., Hahne, I., Schulze, T., Bergmann, N., Fuchs, L., Zierhut, M., Hahn, E., & Böge, K. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1086468 · Cited by 13
Instructional Strategies that Foster Effective Problem-Solving
Singh, C., Maries, A., Heller, K., & Heller, P. M. (2023) · doi:10.1063/9780735425477_017 · Cited by 28
“This process of controlling and monitoring mental decisions is called metacognition (Flavell, 1976, Schoenfeld, 1987, Jacobs & Paris, 1987, Schraw, 1998, Morphew et al., 2020).”
BackgroundTheory of Mind in relation to Metacognition and ICTs. A metacognitive approach to ToM
Bamicha, V., & Drigas, A. S. (2023) · Scientific Electronic Archives · doi:10.36560/16420231711 · Cited by 15
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Avramović, P., Rietdijk, R., Kenny, B., Power, E., & Togher, L. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/45240 · Cited by 14
“Throughout the adaptation process, the research team ensured that the underlying theoretical models of behaviorism [50], cognitive theory [51], and education theory were retained as the content was transferred into a web-based and digital environment.”
Zachariou, A., Bonneville‐Roussy, A., Hargreaves, D. J., & Neokleous, R. (2023) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-023-09342-1 · Cited by 22
“…(2009) explain that their model of self-regulation has been inspired by the cognitive information-processing tradition, which coined the terms ‘metamemory’ and ‘metacognition’ (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979) and the socio-cultural tradition which introduced the term ‘self-regulation’ (Vygotsky, 1978).”
BackgroundExploring medical students’ metacognitive and regulatory dimensions of diagnostic problem solving
Wang, C.-Y., Chen, S., & Huang, M.-Y. (2023) · Medical Education Online · doi:10.1080/10872981.2023.2210804 · Cited by 14
“knows about learning and how they can regulate their own thinking and behaviors to achieve specific goals [23,24].”
BackgroundWhat is New in Metacognition Research? Answers from Current Literature
Zuluaga, Y. E. L., Patiño, M., Umaña, O., & Duque, P. (2023) · Educación y Educadores · doi:10.5294/edu.2022.25.3.5 · Cited by 33
“For instance, Gascoine et al. (2017) did a systematic review on the assessment of metacognition in children, while Lavi et al. (2019) conducted a literature review on the role of metacognition in chemistry education. McDowell (2019) examined empirical studies that investigated the contribution of motivation and metaco…”
BackgroundInfluentialJuhkam, M., Jõgi, A., Soodla, P., & Aro, M. T. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1191103 · Cited by 45
“When teaching reading strategies, as in the process of teaching all metacognitive knowledge and skills, learners’ declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge must be ensured because only in this way can the use of new knowledge and skills be effective (Flavell, 1979; Brown, 1987).”
BackgroundExploring Translanguaging during Metacognitive Strategy Use on L2 Listening and Writing Skills
Robillos, R. J. (2023) · Journal of language and Education · doi:10.17323/jle.2023.14329 · Cited by 14
“As coined by Flavell (1979), metacognition refers to the knowledge about and regulation of the cognitive processes during learning.”
BackgroundPei, T., Suwanthep, J., & Lu, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1285059 · Cited by 27
“Metacognition is how people’s cognitive processes are monitored, regulated, and orchestrated (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundWei, H., & Luo, Y. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01612-0 · Cited by 13
“Another theoretical concept discussed in educational psychology is metacognition, introduced by Flavell [16].”
RetractedDistinct genetic and environmental origins of hierarchical cognitive abilities in adult humans
Jiang, S., Sun, F., Yuan, P., Jiang, Y., & Wan, X. (2024) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114060 · Cited by 15
Anthonysamy, L., Sugendran, P., Wei, L. O., & Hoon, T. S. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12678-z · Cited by 26
“This has been consistently demonstrated from the previous research findings by Flavell (1979) and Barnard et al. (2009) that task strategies help students improve their thinking and learning skills.”
Validating a new method for assessing young foreign language learners’ metacognitive knowledge
Teng, M. F., & Zhang, L. J. (2024) · Research Methods in Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100121 · Cited by 17
Interaction between overconfidence effects and training formats in nurses’ education in hand hygiene
Seidel-Fischer, J., Trifunovic-Koenig, M., Gerber, B., Otto, B., Bentele, M., Fischer, M. R., & Bushuven, S. (2024) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-024-02020-w · Cited by 14
“Metacognition in education, initially conceptualized as the capacity to observe, evaluate, and strategize one’s own learning process [20], hinges on self-reflection.”
BackgroundNzembayie, K. F., Buckley, A. P., & Talay, I. (2024) · Entrepreneurship Education and Pedagogy · doi:10.1177/25151274241292276 · Cited by 31
“…educators should examine how students become self-aware and self-regulate against the harmful effects of stress and ego, concurrently avoiding errors in judgment, such as con fi rmation bias and the escalation of commitment when confronting discon fi rming evidence (Kahneman & Tversky, 1977, 1979).”
Influential
Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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