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Cited by 319Psychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionOptimism, Hope, and Well-beingMindfulness and Compassion Interventions

A longitudinal experimental study comparing the effectiveness of happiness-enhancing strategies in Anglo Americans and Asian Americans

Open access
Boehm, Julia K., Lyubomirsky, Sonja, Sheldon, Kennon M.·2011·Cognition and Emotion
DOI 10.1080/02699931.2010.541227PMC PMC4394986
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Abstract

Growing evidence suggests that well-being interventions can be effective. However, it is unclear whether happiness-increasing practices are equally effective for individuals from different cultural backgrounds. To investigate this question, Anglo Americans and predominantly foreign-born Asian Americans were randomly assigned to express optimism, convey gratitude, or list their past experiences (control group). Multilevel analyses indicated that participants in the optimism and gratitude conditions reported enhanced life satisfaction relative to those in the control condition. However, Anglo Americans in the treatment conditions demonstrated larger increases in life satisfaction relative to Asian Americans, while both cultural groups in the control condition showed the least improvement. These results are consistent with the idea that the value individualist cultures place on self-improvement and personal agency bolsters the efforts of Anglo Americans to become more satisfied, whereas collectivist cultures' de-emphasis of self-focus and individual goals interferes with the efforts of Asian Americans to pursue enhanced well-being.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

A 6-week randomized intervention found that optimism and gratitude writing increased life satisfaction relative to a control activity, but Anglo Americans benefited more than predominantly foreign-born Asian Americans. The authors interpret this as cultural differences in the “will” and “way” to pursue happiness.

Key findings

  • Participants in the optimism condition (γ12 = .05, SE = .02, t(199) = 1.98, p < .05) and gratitude condition (γ13 = .07, SE = .02, t(199) = 3.03, p < .01) showed greater increases in life satisfaction over time than control participants; treatment vs. control was also significant (γ11 = .06, SE = .02, t(199) = 2.87, p < .01).
  • The condition effect was qualified by cultural background (γ16 = −.08, SE = .04, t(199) = −1.91, p = .057; model comparison χ²(4) = 11.40, p = .02): Anglo Americans in treatment conditions showed the largest gains, while Asian Americans in treatment conditions showed little change.
  • Asian Americans showed a trend toward benefiting less from optimism than gratitude (γ17 = −.07, SE = .04, t(199) = −1.68, p = .09; gratitude contrast γ18 = −.02, SE = .04, t(199) = −.55, ns).
  • Baseline life satisfaction did not differ by culture (t = .91, ns) or experimental condition (F = .90, ns).

Methods

  • 220 community-dwelling adults (116 female, 104 male; ages 20–71, M = 35.62, SD = 11.36) were randomly assigned in a 2 (Asian American, Anglo American) × 3 (optimism, gratitude, control) design: optimism n = 74, gratitude n = 72, control n = 74.
  • Participants completed six weekly 10-minute writing exercises over the Internet and completed the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) at baseline, immediately post-intervention, and 1 month later.
  • Multilevel modeling in SAS Proc Mixed tested within-person and between-person change, with age centered at the mean and included as a covariate.

Limitations

  • The paper states that small subgroup sizes required combining primarily East Asian participants into a heterogeneous Asian American group, and that future research should study samples within Asian countries rather than using Asian Americans as a proxy.
  • The paper states that the self-reported SWLS raises potential social desirability and response biases, and that future work should include other measures and other aspects of subjective well-being.
  • Evident from the text: the Asian American sample was predominantly foreign-born (78%), and recruitment was largely online/community-based in Southern California, so findings may not generalize to other Asian or collectivist populations.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1080/02699931.2010.541227

Cites

31 of 31 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 13 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The two treatment conditions combined showed greater increases in life satisfaction than the control condition.

    “We found a similar pattern after collapsing together the two treatment conditions and comparing them with the control condition – namely, those in the control condition did not receive the boost that those in the treatment conditions did (γ11 = .06, SE = .02, t(199) = 2.87, p < .01; comparison with baseline model: χ2(2) = 10.4, p < .01).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The control activity (listing past week's experiences) did not itself enhance well-being.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants complied with the writing manipulations.
  • Findingown data

    Asian Americans in the control condition showed very small decrements in life satisfaction across time.

    “Asian Americans in either of the two treatment conditions displayed little change in satisfaction across time, whereas Asian Americans in the control condition actually showed very small decrements in their satisfaction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Asian Americans (predominantly foreign-born) are sufficiently representative of collectivist cultures for testing cultural moderation.
  • Findingown data

    Asian Americans in either treatment condition displayed little change in life satisfaction across time.

    “Asian Americans in either of the two treatment conditions displayed little change in satisfaction across time, whereas Asian Americans in the control condition actually showed very small decrements in their satisfaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Asian Americans (predominantly foreign-born) are sufficiently representative of collectivist cultures for testing cultural moderation.
  • Findingown data

    Age was a significant predictor of initial life satisfaction, with older participants reporting lower life satisfaction than younger ones.

    “Age, centered at the mean, was a significant predictor of initial life satisfaction, such that older participants reported lower life satisfaction than younger ones.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The three experimental groups did not differ in life satisfaction prior to beginning the intervention.

    “nor did the three experimental groups (F = .90, ns).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 12
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Asian Americans in the gratitude condition showed slight increases in life satisfaction across time, whereas Asian Americans in the optimism condition showed essentially no change.

    “That is, Asian Americans in the gratitude condition showed slight increases in life satisfaction across time, whereas Asian Americans in the optimism condition showed essentially no change (see Figure 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Asian Americans (predominantly foreign-born) are sufficiently representative of collectivist cultures for testing cultural moderation.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Initial evidence suggests that, at least in the short-term, well-being interventions can be successful.

    “Initial evidence suggests that, at least in the short-term, well-being interventions can be successful.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Emmons & McCullough, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Froh, Sefick, & Emmons, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lyubomirsky, Dickerhoof, Boehm, & Sheldon, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    People from individualist cultures tend to emphasize an autonomous and independent self over the needs of the larger group, and are inclined to be motivated by personal needs and goals.

    “In addition, people from individualist cultures tend to emphasize an autonomous and independent self over the needs of the larger group, and are inclined to be motivated by personal needs and goals (Triandis, 1995).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Triandis, 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cultural background moderates the influence of the determinants of well-being; for example, self-esteem is more important to the well-being of people in individualist versus collectivist cultures.

    “Moreover, cultural background moderates the influence of the determinants of well-being – for example, self-esteem is more important to the well-being of people in individualist versus collectivist cultures (Diener & Diener, 1995).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Diener & Diener, 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Collectivist cultures emphasize collective harmony and tend to be motivated by the norms and duties of their family or group.

    “Instead, such cultures emphasize collective harmony and tend to be motivated by the norms and duties of their family or group (Triandis, 1995).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Triandis, 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Norms in collectivist cultures are less supportive of self-expression, self-improvement, and the pursuit of individual goals.

    “In sum, norms in collectivist cultures are less supportive of self-expression, self-improvement, and the pursuit of individual goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The SWLS showed internal consistency alphas ranging from .91 to .94 in this study.

    “Alphas for the SWLS ranged from .91 to .94 in this study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The SWLS is a 5-item scale designed to assess the cognitive component of subjective well-being.

    “The SWLS is a 5-item scale designed to assess the cognitive component of subjective well-being.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Those from individualist cultures base their life satisfaction more on intrapersonal than interpersonal factors, whereas those from collectivist cultures do the reverse.

    “Those from individualist cultures base their life satisfaction more on intrapersonal than interpersonal factors, whereas those from collectivist cultures do the reverse (Suh, Diener, Oishi, & Triandis, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Suh, Diener, Oishi, & Triandis, 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Most individuals pursuing happiness will benefit by regularly practicing gratitude and optimism, but those benefits may be mitigated by cultural norms and values that fail to support their efforts.

    “Taken together, our findings suggest that although most individuals pursuing happiness will benefit by regularly practicing gratitude and optimism, those benefits may be mitigated by cultural norms and values that fail to support their efforts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Asian Americans (predominantly foreign-born) are sufficiently representative of collectivist cultures for testing cultural moderation.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Other characteristics of Asian Americans, such as relatively higher levels of pessimism, may be advantageous in a collectivist society, providing another 'way' by which Asian Americans can experience success and well-being.

    “Moreover, it is worth mentioning that other characteristics of Asian Americans – such as their relatively higher levels of pessimism – may be advantageous in a collectivist society, providing another “way” (for example, via problem-solving coping strategies) by which Asian Americans can experience both success and well-being (Chang, 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chang, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Asian Americans (predominantly foreign-born) are sufficiently representative of collectivist cultures for testing cultural moderation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Expressing gratitude may more closely align with Asian-rooted values and priorities, so Asian Americans may have viewed it as a more appropriate 'way' to achieving happiness and experienced a stronger 'will' to do so.

    “Because expressing gratitude may more closely align with Asian-rooted values and priorities, the activity may have been viewed by Asian Americans as a more appropriate “way” to achieving happiness and, hence, they experienced a stronger “will” to do so.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Asian Americans (predominantly foreign-born) are sufficiently representative of collectivist cultures for testing cultural moderation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The pursuit of happiness can be fruitful if done under optimal conditions; people need both a 'will' (desire and motivation) and a 'way' (an efficacious happiness-boosting activity).

    “These findings suggest that the pursuit of happiness can be fruitful if done under optimal conditions. That is, people need both a “will” (i.e., the desire and motivation to become happier) and a “way” (i.e., an efficacious happiness-boosting activity or positive practice; Lyubomirsky et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lyubomirsky et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The control activity (listing past week's experiences) did not itself enhance well-being.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants complied with the writing manipulations.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The study's implications caution against the assumption that all individuals have the same will to increase personal well-being and that all individuals benefit from the same way of pursuing it.

    “This study’s implications caution against the assumption that all individuals have the same will to increase personal well-being and that all individuals benefit from the same way of pursuing it.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Asian Americans (predominantly foreign-born) are sufficiently representative of collectivist cultures for testing cultural moderation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The study's results are consistent with the idea that the value individualist cultures place on self-improvement and personal agency bolsters the efforts of Anglo Americans to become more satisfied, whereas collectivist cultures' de-emphasis of self-focus and individual goals interferes with the efforts of Asian Americans to pursue enhanced well-being.

    “These results are consistent with the idea that the value individualist cultures place on self-improvement and personal agency bolsters the efforts of Anglo Americans to become more satisfied, whereas collectivist cultures’ de-emphasis of self-focus and individual goals interferes with the efforts of Asian Americans to pursue enhanced well-being.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Asian Americans (predominantly foreign-born) are sufficiently representative of collectivist cultures for testing cultural moderation.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The study is not the first to use a heterogeneous sample when examining cultural differences.

    “To be sure, we are not the first researchers to use a heterogeneous sample when examining cultural differences (e.g., English & Chen, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites English & Chen, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: The similarities among the Asian cultures relevant to this research likely outweigh the differences.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Participating in empirically-established positive activities and originating from a culture that endorses the pursuit of individual well-being may be two keys for achieving enhanced happiness.

    “This finding suggests that participating in empirically-established positive activities and originating from a culture that endorses the pursuit of individual well-being may be two keys for achieving enhanced happiness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Asian Americans (predominantly foreign-born) are sufficiently representative of collectivist cultures for testing cultural moderation.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The self-reported dependent variable raises potential social desirability and response biases.

    “Another limitation concerned the self-reported dependent variable in this study – a methodology that raises potential social desirability and response biases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
18 of 18

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' expectations across all conditions were equivalent at the start of the experiment.

    “The study was described as potentially improving mental and physical health so that participants’ expectations across all conditions would be equivalent at the start of the experiment.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The similarities among the Asian cultures relevant to this research likely outweigh the differences.

    “Although some cultural differences undoubtedly exist among distinct Asian groups, we felt that East Asia’s broad emphasis on collective goals – as opposed to a focus on individual pursuits and personal well-being – would be captured by a mixed group of Asian-Americans. In other words, the similarities among these cultures (at least those relevant to this research) likely outweigh the differences.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The control activity (listing past week's experiences) did not itself enhance well-being.

    “Those in the control condition were asked to outline what they had done in the past week. The control activity was described as an organizational task to enhance the plausibility of this condition as a positive exercise.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Asian Americans (predominantly foreign-born) are sufficiently representative of collectivist cultures for testing cultural moderation.

    “it would be valuable for future researchers to investigate well-being interventions in samples within Asian countries rather than using Asian Americans as a proxy (as we have done here and others have done previously; e.g., Tsai & Levenson, 1997), because, relative to Asian Americans, Asians may manifest greater differences with Anglo Americans.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants complied with the writing manipulations.

    “Following these measurements, participants completed the first of six writing manipulations, each lasting 10 min once a week for 6 weeks.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cultural groups did not differ on unmeasured variables that could affect response to the intervention.

    “Asian Americans and Anglo Americans did not differ in life satisfaction prior to beginning the intervention (t = .91, ns)”
6 of 6

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentχ²(4) = 12.3reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .015

    “χ2(4) = 12.3, p < .05”

  • Consistentt(199) = 1.98reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .049

    “t(199) = 1.98, p < .05”

  • Consistentt(199) = 3.03reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .003

    “t(199) = 3.03, p < .01”

  • Consistentt(199) = 2.87reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .005

    “t(199) = 2.87, p < .01”

  • Consistentχ²(2) = 10.4reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .006

    “χ2(2) = 10.4, p < .01”

  • Consistentχ²(4) = 11.4reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .022

    “χ2(4) = 11.40, p = .02”

  • Consistentt(199) = -1.68reported p = .09 · recomputed p = .095

    “t(199) = −1.68, p = .09”

  • Consistentt(199) = -0.55reported n.s. · recomputed p = .583

    “t(199) = −.55, ns”

8 of 8

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Lyubomirsky S., Emotion

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Boehm, J. K., Lyubomirsky, S., & Sheldon, K. M.
Affiliations
  • University of California, Riverside (US)
  • University of Missouri (US)
Corresponding author
Boehm, Julia K.
ORCID
Venue
Cognition and Emotion
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2011-02-28
Volume
25
Issue
7
Pages
1263-1272
ISSN
  • 0269-9931 (ISSN-L)
  • 1464-0600
DOI
10.1080/02699931.2010.541227
PMC
PMC4394986
OpenAlex
W2141649307
Semantic Scholar
1497880f4ec7f53729619f7dd03a7a408cb1398a
Cited by
318
References
31
Citations by year
2026: 11 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 11
FWCI
25.67
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Cognition & Emotion (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (5r01mh065937-05)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (5 R01 MH065937-04, R01 MH065937)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
Keywords
well-being interventions, life satisfaction, optimism, gratitude, cultural differences, Anglo American, Asian Americans, individualism, collectivism, human development, individual agency, cross-cultural comparison
MeSH terms
Adult, Aged, Asian, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Female, Happiness, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Personal Satisfaction, Social Values, White People

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

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Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

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