Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss.

“However, obsession with the past has been found to lead to a negative impact on people’s affect (Garrido 2018) or even worsens depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, and Larson 1994).”

“These results are as hypothesized and are consistent with previous studies of bereaved parents that found that reliance upon emotional coping strategies can be detrimental to adjustment (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994; Rando, 1988; Videka-Sherman, 1982).”

“Rumination is also related with depressive syndromes (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1993, Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994, Lyubomirsky et al. 1998).”

“In such circumstances, a child who feels helpless and socially and emotionally isolated may show reduced reliance on externally-oriented problem solving and an increased likelihoodof engaging in solitary copingstyles suchas rumination (Browne & Finkelhor, 1986; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994).”

“In fact, rumination appears to have a unique relationship to depression even after statistically controlling for other negative cognitive styles (Flett et al., 2002; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994; Spasojevic and Alloy, 2001).”

“The RSQ has demonstrated good internal consistency (NolenHoeksema & Morrow, 1991) and validity for predicting the onset of depression (NolenHoeksema & Morrow, 1991; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994).”

“These include: psychophysiological stress [54,55]; attention [56,57]; cognitive functioning [58,59]; age-related cognitive decline [60,61]; rumination [62,63]; pain relief and pain tolerance [64,65]; pleasure, mood and affect [49,66–68]; self-esteem [69,70]; anger and aggression [71,72]; physical health and exercise […”

“There is evidence that repeated experiences of uncontrollability may result in ruminative coping (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994), depressive symptomatology (Thompson et al.”

“Our findings support and extend previous research by Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (1994), who demonstrated that rumination mediated the effect of social support on depressive symptoms.”

“For instance, longitudinal studies have found that participants who reported a ruminative response style were more likely to become depressed following bereavement (Nolen-Hoeksema, McBride, & Larson, 1997 ; Nolen-Hoeskema, Parker, & Larson, 1994 ).”

“This finding supports theory linking rumination to life stress (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994), here at the daily level as opposed to major life events (see also Moberly & Watkins, 2008b, and Ruscio et al., 2015).”

“For example, ruminators generally experience higher levels of depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress, and complicated grief symptoms, and more general distress (Eisma et al, 2015a, 2014a, 2012; Morina, 2011; Ito et al, 2003; Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 1997, 1994).”

“Especially perseverative cognitive styles associated with negative effects, such as worry and rumination have been shown to have depressogenic effects (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994) and lead to a delayed recovery from laboratory stressors (Brosschot et al. 2006; Larsen and Christenfeld 2010).”

“Given previous findings suggesting that neuroticism (Roberts & Gotlib, 1997) and ruminative response style ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, & Larson, 1994; Roberts et al., in press) mediate the relation between gender and depression in older samples, it is important for future studies to examine the impact of ruminative focu…”

“Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, and Larson (1994) thus suggest that it may be the ruminative quality of their coping-style that is detrimental[1].”

“Previous studies using this measure have shown good test–retest reliability and acceptable convergent and predictive validity (NolenHoeksema and Morrow 1991; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994; Treynor et al. 2003).”

“The personality variable ruminative style is a type of emotion-focused coping strategy that involves “chronic, passive focus on one’s negative emotions and the meaning of these emotions” (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994, p. 92).”

“Some examples of rumination include isolating oneself to dwell on one’s depressed symptoms and worrying about the possible effects of these symptoms (Koole et al. 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994).”

“According to Rando, the processes through which this occurs are reviewing the relationship, reconciling all different aspects of the person, and integrating these aspects into a composite image of the deceased. Rando (1993) also suggested detailed intervention steps designed to help a bereaved person at any step of th…”

“But the psychological and neuroscientific study of ruminations began in earnest with the late Dr. NolenHoeksema (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999, 1997, 1994).”

“Previous studies have shown good test retest reliability (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994) and acceptable convergent and predictive validity (Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994; Treynor, Gonzalez, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2003).”

“Nolen-Hoeksema (1991) emphasized the ruminative focus on depression symptoms rather than on situations or self (see Cox et al. 2001; also see Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994 ) and, in contrast to those who conceptualize rumination as instrumental”

“As in other stages of life, such negative life events bring increased risk for depressive symptoms (Fiske, Gatz, & Pedersen, 2003; Nolen-Hoeksema & Ahrens, 2002), especially when they are associated with increased ruminative thinking (Bonanno et al., 2002; Bonanno, Papa, Lalande, Zhang, & Noll, 2005; Nolen-Hoeksema, P…”

“…refers to the experience of repetitive thoughts in the absence of immediate environmental cueing is generally found to be related to depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000), although certain forms of ruminative thinking may be helpful in coping with stressful life…”

“The questionnaire has good test–retest reliability in community samples over 5 months (r = .80; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994 ).”

“Although dejection, as measured in our research, is nowhere near the magnitude of that which Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, and Larson (1994) measure, we provide evidence compatible with their work and perhaps even helpful in extending it.”

“Nolen-Hoeksema and colleagues are an important exception; they found that individuals with a ruminative coping style suffered more depressive symptoms, while persons with high levels of dispositional optimism reported fewer depressive symptoms following loss (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994; Nolen-Hoeksema, McBride, and La…”

“Nolen-Hoeksema (1987; Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, & Larson, 1994 ) found that women are more likely than men to report that they had responded to depression by ruminating and focusing on the possible causes of their symptoms.”

“Considering the nature of the student sample and also following Starr and Moulds (2006), two amendments were made to the appraisal items of the RIQ.”

“The studies which have constituted the basis to of this conceptualization have showed that rumination increased the intensity and duration of depressive periods (5-8).”

“Although women are more likely than men to engage in ruminative thought patterns that are associated with depressive symptoms (46,47), thinking about and reflecting on emotionally difficult tasks may not be a uniquely challenging experience for women.”

“These approach strategies can give a sense of control (Kort-Butler, 2009) and are associated with fewer depressive symptoms in TD children (Abela et al., 2002; Gross, 1999; Nolenhoeksema et al., 1994).”

“For example, numerous prospective studies have found that the RRS Brooding subscale interacts with measures of negative events to predict the development of depression (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema, Morrow, & Fredrickson, 1993).”

“In line with studies focusing on other life stressors [28,29,34–37,45], the cognitive coping strategies self-blame, rumination, and catastrophizing were positively related to depressive symptoms, while positive reappraisal was negatively related to depressive symptoms.”

“Research with depressed participants has found that women ruminate more than men [Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994; Nolen-Hoeksema and Harrell, 2002], but less is known about normative populations.”

“These results may add support to Nolen-Hoeksema and colleagues’ assertion that ruminative response style is a better predictor of depressive symptoms than neuroticism or other related measures (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994).”

“Intrusive rumination correlates with negative emotions [21], whereas deliberate rumination correlates with PTG [22].”

“It has been reported to have good internal consistency (a = .89, Nolen-Hoeksema, Morrow & Fredrickson, cited in Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991), and good six-month test-retest reliability of .80 ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, & Larson, 1994 ).”

“For example, in a number of longitudinal naturalistic studies it has been shown that ruminating predicts longer or more severe dysphoria (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991; Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, & Larson, 1994 ).”

“Correlational studies only permit tentative conclusions concerning the direction of influence between rumination and depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994).”

“For example, as it becomes clear that protective action is not possible, do people stop worrying and engage in accommodative efforts, or does worry in such situations become more like rumination ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, & Larson, 1994 ), leading to repetitive intrusive thoughts about a problem and avoidant forms of c…”

“There is also support for the tenet that response styles may contribute to greater vulnerability to depression among women (i.e., women are more likely than men to ruminate in response to sadness; Butler & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1994; Just & Alloy, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991; Nolen-Hoeks…”

“This is in line with studies focusing on other life stressors (Garnefski et al., 2003; Garnefski & Kraaij, 2006b; Kraaij et al., 2008b; Martin & Dahlen, 2005; NolenHoeksma, 1998; Nolen-Hoeksma et al., 1994), where these cognitive coping strategies have consistently been shown to be related to emotional problems.”

“A number of studies reported unfavorable effects of rumination as well as beneficial effects of distraction on depression-related emotional and cognitive processes (e.g. Nolen-Hoeksema and Morrow, 1991; Nolen-Hoeksema and Parker, 1994; Lyubomirsky et al., 1999; Bagby and Parker, 2001; Lam et al., 2003; Chang, 2004; Do…”

“come to express more negative expectations about the future, endorse more negative interpretations of events, and give more self-defeating explanations for negative events (e.g., Gibbons et al., 1985; Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, & Larson, 1994; Pyszczynski et al., 1987, 1989).”

“In line with this, earlier research has shown an association between rumination and depression ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, & Larson, 1994 ).”