Cited by 3,322Psychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionFlow Experience in Various FieldsAging and Gerontology Research

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Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

Keyes, Corey L. M., Shmotkin, Dov, Ryff, Carol D.·2002·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007

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Abstract

Subjective well-being (SWB) is evaluation of life in terms of satisfaction and balance between positive and negative affect; psychological well-being (PWB) entails perception of engagement with existential challenges of life. The authors hypothesized that these research streams are conceptually related but empirically distinct and that combinations of them relate differentially to sociodemographics and personality. Data are from a national sample of 3,032 Americans aged 25-74. Factor analyses confirmed the related-but-distinct status of SWB and PWB. The probability of optimal well-being (high SWB and PWB) increased as age, education, extraversion, and conscientiousness increased and as neuroticism decreased. Compared with adults with higher SWB than PWB. adults with higher PWB than SWB were younger, had more education, and showed more openness to experience.

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The Relationship Between Contextual and Dispositional Variables, Well-Being and Hopelessness in School Context
Buzzai, C., Sorrenti, L., Orecchio, S., Marino, D., & Filippello, P. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.533815 · Cited by 31
Schooling experience and academic performance of Taiwanese students: the importance of psychosocial effects, positive emotions, levels of best practice, and personal well-being
Phan, H. P., & Ngu, B. H. (2020) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-020-09569-9 · Cited by 31
Meaning in life matters for older adults with Alzheimer’s disease in residential care: associations with life satisfaction and depressive symptoms
Dewitte, L., Vandenbulcke, M., & Dezutter, J. (2019) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610218002338 · Cited by 36
“…desired outcome is life satisfaction, which involves a long-term, cognitive evaluation of one’s life in general in light of one’s beliefs and expectations (as opposed to more shortterm evaluations based on immediate experience, such as positive affect) (Frisch et al., 2005; Keyes et al., 2002).”
Background
[Psychological well-being in non-dependent active elderly individuals and its relationship with self-esteem and self-efficacy].
Mesa-Fernández, M., Pérez-Padilla, J., Nunes, C., & Menéndez, S. (2019) · Ciência & Saúde Coletiva · doi:10.1590/1413-81232018241.35302016 · Cited by 26
Social support and psychological well-being as possible predictors of complicated grief in a cross-section of people in mourning. [Apoyo social y bienestar psicológico como posibles predictores de estado de duelo complicado en poblac de personas en duelo]
Durbán, M. V., Fernández, I. S., Bermejo, J. C., Magaña, M., & Maza, R. C. (2014) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.30.3.154691 · Cited by 36
The place and promotion of well-being in mental health services: a qualitative investigation.
Owens, C., Crone, D., Kilgour, L., & el Ansari, W. (2010) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2850.2009.01480.x · Cited by 26
Does attractiveness buy happiness? “It depends on where you’re from”
Plaut, V., Adams, G., & Anderson, S. L. (2009) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2009.01242.x · Cited by 26
Life Domain Satisfaction: A Portugal–France Comparison
Paiva, M. F. R., Neto, F., Sastre, M. M. M., Laumond-Salvatore, N., Rivière, S., & Mullet, E. (2009) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9359-8 · Cited by 26
“Ryff’s model has been supported by a large body of literature (e.g., Keyes et al. 2002 ).”
Method
Eudaimonic Growth: The Development of the Goods in Personhood (or: Cultivating a Good Life Story)
Bauer, J. J. (2016) · International handbooks of quality-of-life · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42445-3_10 · Cited by 35
Investigation of the Effect of COVID-19 Perceived Risk on Death Anxiety, Satisfaction With Life, and Psychological Well-Being
Özer, Ö., Özkan, O., ÖZMEN, S., & Erçoban, N. (2021) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/00302228211026169 · Cited by 30
“Psychological well-being is defined as managing the responses to existential difficulties encountered in life (such as maintaining meaningful goals, personal development, and establishing meritable relationships with others) (Keyes et al., 2002).”
Background
Prioritizing Happiness has Important Implications for Mental Health, but Perhaps Only if you Already are Happy
Burns, R., & Crisp, D. (2021) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-020-09891-6 · Cited by 25
Sleep Duration, Sleep Quality and Physical Activity, but Not Sedentary Behaviour, Are Associated with Positive Mental Health in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Population: A Cross-Sectional Evaluation
Vaingankar, J. A., Müller‐Riemenschneider, F., Chu, A. H. Y., Subramaniam, M., Tan, L. W. L., Chong, S. A., & van Dam, R. M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17228489 · Cited by 26
“Positive mental health (PMH) includes individuals’ attitudes towards themselves, ability to realise their potential, autonomy and environmental mastery, and encompasses subjective and psychological well-being [14].”
Background
How Migration in Later Life Shapes Their Quality of Life: A Qualitative Investigation of the Well-Being of the “Drifting Elderly” in China
He, X. L., Zhang, F., Zhao, H., & Li, J. (2020) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-020-02497-3 · Cited by 25
Eudaimonia and Hedonia in the Design and Evaluation of a Cooperative Game for Psychosocial Well-Being
Seaborn, K., Pennefather, P., & Fels, D. (2020) · Hum. Comput. Interact. · doi:10.1080/07370024.2018.1555481 · Cited by 25
The effects of using psychodrama on the psychological wellbeing of university students.
Kaya, F., & Deniz, H. (2020) · Perspectives in psychiatric care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12510 · Cited by 25
“It’s not about sport, it’s about you”: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of mentoring elite athletes
Sandardos, S., & Chambers, T. (2019) · Psychology of Sport And Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.02.003 · Cited by 25
Optimization: In-Depth Examination and Proposition
Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., & Yeung, A. S. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01398 · Cited by 28
“In recent years, researchers in the areas of subjective well-being (Fredrickson, 2000; Keyes et al., 2002) and healthcare and aging for senior citizens (Freund and Baltes, 1998; Ziegelmann and Lippke, 2007) have made extensive reference to the concept of optimization.”
Background
Development and validation of the openness to the future scale: a prospective protective factor
Botella, C., Molinari, G., Fernández‐Álvarez, J., Guillén, V., García‐Palacios, A., Baños, R., & Tomás, J. M. (2018) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-018-0889-8 · Cited by 33
“Background Most research on psychopathology has provided an incomplete picture of mental health by focusing mainly on vulnerability factors and omitting processes that may explain human adaptive functioning and well-being [1].”
Background
Satisfaction of Basic Psychological Needs, Self-Determined Exercise Motivation, and Psychological Well-Being in Mothers Exercising in Group-Based Versus Individual-Based Contexts
Lovell, G. P., Gordon, J. A. R., Mueller, M. B., Mulgrew, K. E., & Sharman, R. R. (2015) · Health Care For Women International · doi:10.1080/07399332.2015.1078333 · Cited by 35
Team Cohesion and Individual Well-Being: A Conceptual Analysis and Relational Framework
Vanhove, A. J., & Herian, M. N. (2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1534-085620150000017004 · Cited by 36
Instrumentos Baseados em Psicologia Positiva no Brasil: uma Revisão Sistemática
Pires, J., Nunes, M. F. O., & Nunes, C. H. S. D. S. (2015) · doi:10.1590/1413-82712015200209 · Cited by 25
Rediscovering the Positive Psychology of Sport Participation: Happiness in a Ski Resort Context
Lee, H., Shin, S., Bunds, K. S., Kim, M., & Cho, K. M. (2013) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-013-9255-5 · Cited by 20
Work-Life Integration
Hogan, M., & Hogan, V. (2007) · Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_101757 · Cited by 25
Measuring Eudaimonic Well-Being
Proctor, C., & Tweed, R. (2016) · International handbooks of quality-of-life · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42445-3_18 · Cited by 25
Predictive Power of Positive Mental Health: A Scoping Review
Margraf, J., Teismann, T., & Brailovskaia, J. (2024) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-024-00788-x · Cited by 31
“Keyes et al. ( 2002) offered the term flourishing to describe a condition characterized by high levels of both subjective and psychological well-being.”
The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic on the mental health of students and teaching staff
Sipeki, I., Vissi, T., & Túri, I. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09185 · Cited by 24
Digital natives’ snack content consumption and their goals: A means-end chain approach
Nam, J., & Jung, Y. (2021) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2021.101664 · Cited by 34
The Impact of Demographics, Life and Work Circumstances on College and University Instructors’ Well-Being During Quaranteaching
Jelińska, M., & Paradowski, M. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643229 · Cited by 38
“The eudaimonic tradition in turn relies on a notion of psychological wellbeing which refers to positive psychological functioning and development covering purpose in life, autonomy, personal growth, self-esteem, acceptance, mastery, control, and positive relations with others (e.g., Rogers, 1961; Ryff, 1989a,b; Waterm…”
Background
Genetic evidence for a large overlap and potential bidirectional causal effects between resilience and well-being
de Vries, L. P., Baselmans, B. M. L., Luykx, J. J., de Zeeuw, E. L., Minică, C. C., de Geus, E. J. C., Vinkers, C. H., & Bartels, M. (2021) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100315 · Cited by 33
“Factor analytic studies showed that hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of well-being load on separate yet highly correlated factors, with correlations in the range of 0.81–0.92 (Bobowik et al., 2015; Gallagher et al., 2009; Keyes, 2002; Keyes et al., 2002).”
BackgroundInfluential
Escala de Bienestar Subjetivo (EBS-20 y EBS-8): Construcción y Validación
Calleja, N., & Mason, T. A. (2020) · Revista Iberoamericana de Diagnóstico y Evaluación - e Avaliação Psicológica · doi:10.21865/ridep55.2.14 · Cited by 56
How Does Negative Career Feedback Affect Career Goal Disengagement? The Mediating Roles of Career Planning and Psychological Well-Being
Jawahar, I., & Shabeer, S. (2019) · Journal of Career Development · doi:10.1177/0894845319853637 · Cited by 24
Can Recovery From an Eating Disorder Be Measured? Toward a Standardized Questionnaire
Bachner‐Melman, R., Ari, L. L., Zohar, A. H., & Lev, S. L. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02456 · Cited by 33
Mindfulness as a Moderator in the Relation Between Income and Psychological Well-Being
Sugiura, Y., & Sugiura, T. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01477 · Cited by 36
“Among PWB subscales, environmental mastery and self-acceptance have some overlap (correlations) with subjective well-being, while the other four (autonomy, personal growth, purpose in life, and positive relations) are more distinct from subjective well-bring (Ryff, 1989; Keyes et al., 2002).”
BackgroundInfluential
Differences in well-being between sexual minority and heterosexual college students
Crawford, T. N., & Ridner, S. (2018) · Journal of LGBT Youth · doi:10.1080/19361653.2018.1470954 · Cited by 24
The Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance of Positive and Negative Affect
Joshanloo, M., & Bakhshi, A. (2015) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000252 · Cited by 24
Felicidade Hedónica e Eudaimónica: um estudo com adolescentes portugueses
Freire, T., Zenhas, F., Tavares, D., & Iglésias, C. (2014) · Análise Psicológica · doi:10.14417/ap.595 · Cited by 24
“Neste âmbito, o modelo multidimensional de Ryff (1989) identifica seis dimensões psicológicas: autoaceitação, relações positivas com os outros, autonomia, domínio do meio, propósito de vida, e crescimento pessoal (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryff & Keyes, 1995).”
Background
Social responsibility: a way of requisite holism of humans and their well-being
Žižek, S. Š., & Mulej, M. (2013) · Kybernetes · doi:10.1108/03684921311310639 · Cited by 24
The Pursuit of Happiness: Alternative Conceptions of Subjective Well-Being
Shmotkin, D. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511920974.004 · Cited by 32
Self-citation
Life‐Span Perspectives on Positive Personality Development in Adulthood and Old Age
Staudinger, U. M., & Bowen, C. E. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470880166.hlsd002008 · Cited by 21
Does a mindfulness-, acceptance-, and value-based intervention for burnout have long-term effects on different levels of subjective well-being?
Kinnunen, S. M., Puolakanaho, A., Mäkikangas, A., Tolvanen, A., & Lappalainen, R. (2020) · International Journal of Stress Management · doi:10.1037/str0000132 · Cited by 23
Examining mediators of change in wellbeing, stress, and depression in a blended, Internet-based, ACT intervention for university students
Räsänen, P., Muotka, J., & Lappalainen, R. (2020) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2020.100343 · Cited by 23
“The MHC-SF consists of 14 items that measure subjective psychological, emotional, and social wellbeing on a 6-point scale from 0 (never) to 6 (every day) (Keyes et al., 2002).”
Background
Eudaimonic self-expansion: The effects of eudaimonic reflections on nature connectedness
Lengieza, M. L. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102231 · Cited by 25
The Impact of Mindful Learning on Subjective and Psychological Well-Being in Postgraduate Students
Wang, Q., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Chen, T.-W. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13121009 · Cited by 41
“The concept of PWB emphasizes the potential for self-actualization, self-growth, and positive experience that is obtained by individuals in their efforts to engage in life activities, and for achievement [33–36].”
Background
Measuring Financial Well-Being: A Systematic Review of Psychometric Instruments
Cardoso, N. D. O., Markus, J., Machado, W. D. L., & Guilherme, A. A. (2023) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-023-00697-5 · Cited by 23
Leadership and Employee Well-Being and Work Performance when Working from Home: A Systematic Literature Review
Lundqvist, D., & Wallo, A. (2023) · Scandinavian Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.16993/sjwop.199 · Cited by 33
Examining the association between self-control and mental health among adolescents: The mediating role of resilience
Simsir-Gokalp, Z. (2023) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/01430343231182392 · Cited by 23
“PWB primarily deals with elements of human development and existential questions in life (Keyes et al., 2002).”
Background
A co-citation analysis of purpose: trends and (potential) troubles in the foundation of purpose scholarship
Bronk, K. C., Reichard, R. J., & Li, J. (2023) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2023.2168563 · Cited by 31
Fear of COVID-19, hotel employee outcomes and workplace health and safety management practices: Evidence from Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt
Selem, K. M., Ahmad, M. S., Belwal, R., & Alkayid, K. (2022) · Tourism and Hospitality Research · doi:10.1177/14673584221119374 · Cited by 23
“From the hedonistic perspective, psychological well-being represents the quest for rewards or pleasure that one seeks towards attaining satisfaction with life, avoiding negative experiences or effects (Keyes et al., 2002).”
When Happiness is Both Joy and Purpose: The Complexity of the Pursuit of Happiness and Well-Being is Related to Actual Well-Being
Krasko, J., Intelisano, S., & Luhmann, M. (2022) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-022-00541-2 · Cited by 23
“(2) The successful pursuit of different facets of HWB contributes to the overall level of well-being by affecting different emotional experiences and serving different human needs (Keyes et al., 2002; Sirgy & Wu, 2009).”
Background
Investigation of the Perceived Coronavirus Threat, E-Health Literacy, and Psychological Well-Being in Turkey
Özkan, O., Özer, Ö., ÖZMEN, S., & Budak, F. (2021) · Social Work in Public Health · doi:10.1080/19371918.2021.1986451 · Cited by 24
The Dynamics of the Interrelationships between Conscious Self-regulation, Psychological Well-being and School-related Subjective Well-being in Adolescents: A Three-year Cross-lagged Panel Study
Morosanova, V. I., Fomina, T. G., & Bondarenko, I. N. (2021) · Psychology in Russia State of Art · doi:10.11621/pir.2021.0303 · Cited by 32
Does Flourishing Reduce Engagement in Unhealthy and Risky Lifestyle Behaviours in Emerging Adults?
Sofija, E., Harris, N., Phung, D. T., Sav, A., & Sebar, B. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17249472 · Cited by 29
“Research suggests that these two philosophical traditions overlap and correlate, as both perspectives essentially revolve around subjective accounts of wellbeing but derive from differing operational definitions and thus denote differing aspects of it [8,11].”
Background
Reflections on unspoken problems and potential solutions for the well-being juggernaut in positive psychology
Goodman, F., Disabato, D. J., & Kashdan, T. (2020) · Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2020.1818815 · Cited by 23
“Different research teams found high correlations between subjective and psychological well-being (e.g., Keyes et al., 2002; Linley et al., 2009) as well as other well-being models, such as emotional, social, and existential well-being (e.g., MacDonald, 2018; Petrillo et al., 2015).”
Background

Authors: Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D.
Affiliations: Emory University (US)
Tel Aviv University (IL)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
ORCID: Keyes, Corey L. M.
Shmotkin, Dov
Ryff, Carol D.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002-06
Volume: 82
Issue: 6
Pages: 1007-1022
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007
OpenAlex: W2106343304
Cited by: 3,322
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 93 · 2025: 178 · 2024: 203 · 2023: 254 · 2022: 268 · 2021: 233 · 2020: 255 · 2019: 202 · 2018: 146 · 2017: 193 · 2016: 148 · 2015: 159 · 2014: 179 · 2013: 149 · 2012: 146
FWCI: 33.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Flow Experience in Various Fields
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Keywords: subjective well-being, psychological well-being, positive affect, negative affect, life satisfaction, personality traits, sociodemographic differences, age, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Affect, Aged, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personal Satisfaction, Personality, Discriminant Analysis

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Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

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