Cited by 3,322Psychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionFlow Experience in Various FieldsAging and Gerontology Research

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Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

Keyes, Corey L. M., Shmotkin, Dov, Ryff, Carol D.·2002·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007

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Abstract

Subjective well-being (SWB) is evaluation of life in terms of satisfaction and balance between positive and negative affect; psychological well-being (PWB) entails perception of engagement with existential challenges of life. The authors hypothesized that these research streams are conceptually related but empirically distinct and that combinations of them relate differentially to sociodemographics and personality. Data are from a national sample of 3,032 Americans aged 25-74. Factor analyses confirmed the related-but-distinct status of SWB and PWB. The probability of optimal well-being (high SWB and PWB) increased as age, education, extraversion, and conscientiousness increased and as neuroticism decreased. Compared with adults with higher SWB than PWB. adults with higher PWB than SWB were younger, had more education, and showed more openness to experience.

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Positive Mental Health Scale: Validation of the Mental Health Continuum - Short Form
Machado, W. D. L., & Bandeira, D. R. (2015) · Psico-USF · doi:10.1590/1413-82712015200207 · Cited by 73
“Our findings and interpretations are not inconsistent with or intended to modify the well-consolidated theory on positive mental health and its indicators (Gallagher et al., 2009; Keyes, 2002, 2005a, 2007; Keyes et al., 2002; Linley et al., 2009); rather, they are only meant to place the theory into perspective.”
Result
Residential Context, Social Relationships, and Subjective Well-Being in Assisted Living
Street, D., & Burge, S. W. (2012) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027511423928 · Cited by 63
Sport psychological skills training and psychological well-being in youth athletes
Edwards, D., & Steyn, B. J. M. (2008) · South African Journal for Research in Sport Physical Education and Recreation · doi:10.4314/sajrs.v30i1.25978 · Cited by 63
Well-being and student–faculty interactions in higher education
Trolian, T. L., Archibald, G. C., & Jach, E. A. (2020) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2020.1839023 · Cited by 96
Solution-focused cognitive–behavioral coaching for sustainable high performance and circumventing stress, fatigue, and burnout.
Grant, A. M. (2017) · Consulting psychology journal · doi:10.1037/cpb0000086 · Cited by 72
The co-evolution of emotional well-being with weak and strong friendship ties
Elmer, T., Boda, Z., & Stadtfeld, C. (2017) · Network Science · doi:10.1017/nws.2017.20 · Cited by 62
“Snijders et al. (2010) explain the mathematical model in more detail.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
A Fixed Mindset Leads to Negative Affect: The Relations Between Implicit Theories of Intelligence and Subjective Well-Being
King, R. B. (2017) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000290 · Cited by 62
The Effect of Critical Changes and Gender on Adolescents’ Subjective Well-Being: Comparisons Across 8 Countries
Montserrat, C., Dinisman, T., Bălțătescu, S., Grigoraș, B., & Casas, F. (2015) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-014-9288-9 · Cited by 62
Measuring hedonia and eudaimonia as motives for activities: cross-national investigation through traditional and Bayesian structural equation modeling
Bujacz, A., Vittersø, J., Huta, V., & Kaczmarek, L. D. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00984 · Cited by 63
Examining the change in wellbeing following a holiday
Yu, J., Smale, B. J. A., & Xiao, H. (2021) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104367 · Cited by 70
Psychometric Properties of the Portuguese Version of the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory Short Form Among Divorced Adults
Lamela, D. J. P. D. V., Figueiredo, B., Bastos, A., & Martins, H. (2013) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000161 · Cited by 61
“…theoretical differentiation between (posttraumatic) psychological growth and (posttraumatic) psychological adjustment (Joseph & Linley, 2005; Keyes et al., 2002; Staudinger & Kunzmann, 2005; Tedeschi et al., 2007) – and they suggest that psychological growth after divorce is different from…”
BackgroundResult
Interventions to Modify Psychological Well-Being: Progress, Promises, and an Agenda for Future Research
Kubzansky, L. D., Kim, E. S., Boehm, J. K., Davidson, R. J., Huffman, J. C., Loucks, E. B., Lyubomirsky, S., Picard, R. W., Schueller, S. M., Trudel‐Fitzgerald, C., et al. (2023) · Affective Science · doi:10.1007/s42761-022-00167-w · Cited by 98
A critical consideration of ‘mental health and wellbeing’ in education: Thinking about school aims in terms of wellbeing
Norwich, B., Moore, D. A., Stentiford, L., & Hall, D. (2022) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3795 · Cited by 105
Two pathways to self‐forgiveness: A hedonic path via self‐compassion and a eudaimonic path via the reaffirmation of violated values
Woodyatt, L., Wenzel, M., & Ferber, M. (2017) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12194 · Cited by 61
Protective Factors for Subjective Well-being in Chinese Older Adults: The Roles of Resources and Activity
Dai, B., Zhang, B., & Li, J. (2012) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-012-9378-7 · Cited by 58
“Extending previous studies in older adults (Landau and Litwin 2001; Keyes et al. 2002; Mroczek and Spiro 2005), it seems that the effects of resources on subjective well-being would be not entirely direct, but also be partly indirect through activity.”
Influential
Subjective Well-Being as an Indicator for Clinical Depression
Gargiulo, R. A., & Stokes, M. A. (2008) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9301-0 · Cited by 54
“While some researchers view SWB as an overall sense of happiness (Veenhoven 1991), others define it as a synonym of psychological well-being (Ryan and Deci 2001), although, these views are not mutually exclusive (Haybron 2000; Keyes et al. 2002; Ryan and Deci 2001).”
Background
Prayer and subjective well-being: The application of a cognitive-behavioural framework
Maltby, J., Lewis, C., & Day, L. (2008) · Mental Health Religion & Culture · doi:10.1080/13674670701485722 · Cited by 61
“Consequently, future research should seek to expand on the present cognitive-behavioural model and compare these prayer measures against other theoretical domains of mental-health, such as psychological well-being (the longer-term outcome of the engagement with wider individual development and the existential challeng…”
Children’s perspectives on happiness and subjective well-being in preschool
Koch, A. B. (2018) · doi:10.1111/chso.12225 · Cited by 61
Levels of Mental Health Continuum and Personality Traits
Joshanloo, M., & Nosratabadi, M. (2008) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9253-4 · Cited by 57
“Psychological and social aspects of subjective well-being reflect eudaimonic tradition to the good life (Keyes et al. 2002; Ng et al. 2003; Ryff and Singer 1998; Ryan and Deci 2001; Waterman 1993).”
Background
Cognitive Function in Childhood and Lifetime Cognitive Change in Relation to Mental Wellbeing in Four Cohorts of Older People
Gale, C. R., Cooper, R., Craig, L., Elliott, J., Kuh, D., Richards, M., Starr, J. M., Whalley, L. J., & Deary, I. J. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044860 · Cited by 60
“…disease at the time of cognitive testing was restricted to heart disease. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044860.t001 socioeconomic position in childhood and later life, [26–30] educational attainment, [27,31–33] the personality traits neurot-icism and extraversion, [27,32,34–36] and physical health.”
BackgroundInfluential
Bolstering Workplace Psychological Well-Being Through Transactional and Transformational Leadership
Hannah, S. T., Perez, A. L. U., Lester, P. B., & Quick, J. C. (2020) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051820933623 · Cited by 92
“Another key PWB factor is self-acceptance, an affirming self-view associated with self-esteem, self-worth, and self-respect (Jahoda, 1958; Keyes et al., 2002; Ryff, 1989).”
BackgroundInfluential
Psychological well-being and distress in adolescents: An investigation into associations with poverty, peer victimization, and self-esteem
Jiang, S. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104824 · Cited by 76
Measurement Invariance of Ryff’s Psychological Well-being Scales Across Italian and Belarusian Students
Sirigatti, S., Penzo, I., Iani, L., Mazzeschi, A., Hatalskaja, H., Giannetti, E., & Stefanile, C. (2013) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-012-0082-0 · Cited by 60
“The Ryff’s PWB Scales are one of the most widely applied measures of PWB in clinical and general samples, different for gender, age, marital status, level of education, health, and other aspects of well-being (Clarke et al. 2001; Keyes et al. 2002; Ryff 1989; Ryff and Keyes 1995).”
Method
The Affective Temperaments and Well-Being: Swedish and Iranian Adolescents’ Life Satisfaction and Psychological Well-Being
Garcia, D., & Moradi, S. (2012) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-012-9349-z · Cited by 87
Positive Psychology and the Quality of Life
Keyes, C. L. M., Fredrickson, B. L., & Park, N. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2421-1_5 · Cited by 72
Self-citation
Cognitive Flexibility Mediates the Relationship between Big Five Personality Traits and Life Satisfaction
Odacı, H., & Çıkrıkçı, Ö. (2018) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-018-9651-y · Cited by 70
Promoting well-being through group drumming with mental health service users and their carers
Ascenso, S., Perkins, R., Atkins, L., Fancourt, D., & Williamon, A. (2018) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health & Well-Being · doi:10.1080/17482631.2018.1484219 · Cited by 59
Work, meaning, and gene regulation: Findings from a Japanese information technology firm
Kitayama, S., Akutsu, S., Uchida, Y., & Cole, S. W. (2016) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.07.004 · Cited by 71
Self-reflection as a mediator between self-efficacy and well-being
van Seggelen-Damen, I. C. M., & van Dam, K. (2016) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/jmp-01-2013-0022 · Cited by 74
Insomnia symptoms and well-being: Longitudinal follow-up.
Karlson, C., Gallagher, M. W., Olson, C. A., & Hamilton, N. A. (2012) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028186 · Cited by 58
Health-Enhancing Physical Activity: Associations with Markers of Well-Being.
Mack, D., Wilson, P., Gunnell, K., Gilchrist, J., Kowalski, K., & Crocker, P. (2012) · Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/j.1758-0854.2012.01065.x · Cited by 59
“4 Previous research (e.g. Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002; Miquelon & Vallerand, 2008) has adopted select dimensions of the SPWB. Keyes et al. (2002) argued that Purpose in Life and Positive Growth were distinct from other aspects of EWB measured by the SPWB, with Ryff and Singer (2008) contending that Positive Growth i…”
Method
Adaptation and Initial Validation of the BRCS in an Elderly Spanish Sample
Tomás, J. M., Meléndez, J. C., Sancho, P., & Mayordomo, T. (2011) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000108 · Cited by 61
Honesty–Humility and the HEXACO Structure of Religiosity and Well-Being
Aghababaei, N., Błachnio, A. P., Arji, A., Chiniforoushan, M., Tekke, M., & Mehrabadi, A. F. (2016) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-015-9310-5 · Cited by 58
“Eudaimonic and hedonic approaches to well-being are conceptually distinct, whereas empirical findings have shown overlapping and differential effects of these two approaches on people’s life (Huta et al. 2012; Huta and Ryan 2010; Huta and Waterman 2014; Keyes et al. 2003; Nave et al. 2008; Ryan and Deci 2001; Ryan et…”
Background
Gay Dads are Happier: Subjective Well-Being Among Gay and Heterosexual Fathers
Erez, C., & Shenkman, G. (2016) · Journal of GLBT Family Studies · doi:10.1080/1550428x.2015.1102668 · Cited by 42
“Contrary to the affective component, which is highly affected by immediate events, the cognitive component is affected mostly by dominant long-term changes in a person’s life and is mainly sensitive to social comparison (Keyes et al., 2002; Michalos, 1985).”
Background
Emotional Intelligence Relates to Well‐Being: Evidence from the Situational Judgment Test of Emotional Management
Burrus, J. T., Betancourt, A., Holtzman, S. L., Minsky, J., MacCann, C., & Roberts, R. D. (2012) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/j.1758-0854.2012.01066.x · Cited by 86
The Negative Shadow Cast by Positive Psychology: Contrasting Views and Implications of Humanistic and Positive Psychology on Resiliency
Friedman, H., & Robbins, B. (2012) · The Humanistic Psychologist · doi:10.1080/08873267.2012.643720 · Cited by 58
“However, a shift has occurred in positive psychology to increasingly focus on virtues, resurrecting Aristotle's ( 1934 ) theory regarding eudaimonic happiness—the pursuit of good ends by harmonizing virtues and the examination of how they are contextually related (eg, Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002 ; Ryff, 1989 ).”
Background
Fostering a Sense of Belonging in the Workplace: Enhancing Well-Being and a Positive and Coherent Sense of Self
Waller, L. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-02470-3_83-1 · Cited by 83
Need-supportive teaching is positively associated with students' well-being: A cross-cultural study
Wang, Y., King, R. B., Wang, F., & Leung, S. O. (2021) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102051 · Cited by 70
A Genetic Investigation of the Well-Being Spectrum
Baselmans, B. M. L., van de Weijer, M. P., Abdellaoui, A., Vink, J. M., Hottenga, J., Willemsen, G. A. H. M., Nivard, M. G., de Geus, E. J. C., Boomsma, D. I., & Bartels, M. (2019) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-019-09951-0 · Cited by 69
“…that could be considered to be part of a well-being spectrum are important given the large collection of studies pointing to the emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal benefits of high levels of well-being above and beyond the absence of disorders (Keyes 2002; Diener and Chan 2011; Chmiel et al.”
Background
Subjective Well-Being During the 2008 Economic Crisis: Identification of Mediating and Moderating Factors
Gonza, G., & Burger, A. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9797-y · Cited by 55
Emotion and biological health: the socio-cultural moderation
Kitayama, S., & Park, J. (2017) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.06.016 · Cited by 60
“When self-report instruments are used to assess these two aspects of happiness, they are correlated, sometimes highly, but they are still distinct, loading on two separable factors [35].”
Antecedents of well-being: a study to examine the extent to which personality and emotional intelligence contribute to well-being
Higgs, M. J., & Dulewicz, V. (2013) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2013.815253 · Cited by 57
Satisfaction of basic psychological needs as a mediator of the relationship between community esteem and wellbeing
Molix, L. A., & Nichols, C. P. (2013) · International Journal of Wellbeing · doi:10.5502/ijw.v3i1.2 · Cited by 45
“As have others (Bettencourt & Molix, 2003; Bettencourt, Molix, Talley, & Westgate, 2007), we measured esteem for one’s community using a modified version of the public and private subscales (each comprising four items) from Luhtanen and Crocker’s (1992) Collective Self-Esteem Scale.”
Method
The Relative Impact of Personality Traits, Meaningful Occupation and Occupational Value on Meaning in Life and Life Satisfaction
Eakman, A. M., & Eklund, M. (2012) · Journal of Occupational Science · doi:10.1080/14427591.2012.671762 · Cited by 50
“The role of personality traits in framing ascriptions of well-being operationalized as subjective well-being and psychological well-being has been well-established (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002 ).”
Background
Adolescent Sexuality and Positive Well-Being: A Group-Norms Approach
Vrangalova, Z., & Savin‐Williams, R. C. (2011) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9629-7 · Cited by 72
“The SPWB has established internal structure, internal consistency, test‐retest stability, and construct validity among adults ( Keyes et al. 2002; Linley et al. 2009; Ryff and Keyes 1995; for a review see McDowell 2010).”
Background
Diverse pathways to positive and negative affect in adulthood and later life: an integrative approach using recursive partitioning.
Gruenewald, T., Mroczek, D., Ryff, C., & Singer, B. (2008) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.330 · Cited by 57
Self-citation
Predicting general well-being from self-esteem and affectivity: An exploratory study with Scottish adolescents
Karatzias, A., Chouliara, Z., Power, K., & Swanson, V. (2006) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-006-0064-2 · Cited by 58
“This finding further supports the unique conceptual and measurement status of different well-being measures [5, 6].”
BackgroundResult
Psychological Well - Being and Physical Self-Esteem in Sport and Exercise
Edwards, D., Edwards, S., & Basson, C. (2004) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.1080/14623730.2004.9721921 · Cited by 57
“No previous research has used both the Ryff (1989) and Fox (1990) scales of psychological well-being and physical self-perception concurrently.”
BackgroundMethod
Ryff's Psychological Well-Being Inventory: Factorial Structure and Life History Correlates among Japanese University Students
Kitamura, T., Kishida, Y., Gatayama, R., Matsuoka, T., Miura, S., & Yamabe, K. (2004) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.94.1.83-103 · Cited by 57
Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Commitment: A Moderated Mediation Model of Teachers’ Psychological Well-Being and Principal Transformational Leadership
Li, M., Liu, F., & Yang, C. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14040345 · Cited by 100
“Moreover, other contextual variables such as different leadership types, organizational climate, and social support could serve as moderators in our model to further elucidate the boundary conditions affecting the impact of EI on individual outcomes.”
Background
Pathways to Fatherhood: Psychological Well-Being Among Israeli Gay Fathers Through Surrogacy, Gay Fathers Through Previous Heterosexual Relationships, and Heterosexual Fathers
Shenkman, G., Siboni, O., Tasker, F., & Costa, P. A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00091 · Cited by 56
Lighten UP! A Community-Based Group Intervention to Promote Eudaimonic Well-Being in Older Adults: A Multi-Site Replication with 6 Month Follow-Up
Friedman, E. M., Ruini, C., Foy, C. R., Jaros, L., Love, G. D., & Ryff, C. D. (2019) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2019.1574944 · Cited by 63
Self-citation

Authors: Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D.
Affiliations: Emory University (US)
Tel Aviv University (IL)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
ORCID: Keyes, Corey L. M.
Shmotkin, Dov
Ryff, Carol D.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002-06
Volume: 82
Issue: 6
Pages: 1007-1022
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007
OpenAlex: W2106343304
Cited by: 3,322
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 93 · 2025: 178 · 2024: 203 · 2023: 254 · 2022: 268 · 2021: 233 · 2020: 255 · 2019: 202 · 2018: 146 · 2017: 193 · 2016: 148 · 2015: 159 · 2014: 179 · 2013: 149 · 2012: 146
FWCI: 33.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Flow Experience in Various Fields
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Keywords: subjective well-being, psychological well-being, positive affect, negative affect, life satisfaction, personality traits, sociodemographic differences, age, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Affect, Aged, Educational Status, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personal Satisfaction, Personality, Discriminant Analysis

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Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

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